Schumann, Robert (EN)

Schumann Robert, pseud. Florestan, Eusebius, *8 June 1810 Zwickau, †29 July 1856 Endenich (near Bonn), German composer, music critic and pianist. He was the youngest child of Friedrich Schumann and Johanna née Schnabel. Schumann’s father, who was a bookseller and translator of the poetry of G. Byron and W. Scott, had a great influence on his son’s literary interests. At the age of 7, Schumann began to learn the piano with J. Kuntzsch, the city organist; his first compositions date from 1818. In the summer of 1819, he listened to I. Moscheles play in Karlsbad. In 1820, he entered the Gymnasium in Zwickau; from 1823, he became familiar with the chamber music of the Classical era during musical meetings with C.E. Carus; in 1825, at a school performance, he performed piano pieces by H. Herz and I. Moscheles. The following year, he was deeply affected by the deaths of his father and sister. In 1827, he noted in his diary the “discovery” of a novel by Jean Paul (pseudonym of J.P.F. Richter); he composed his first songs.

After his school leaving exams (March 1828), he travelled to Bavaria with his friend G. Rosen and then began studying law in Leipzig, where, during a few piano lessons with F. Wieck, he met his 9-year-old daughter, Clara. In May 1829, he transferred to the University of Heidelberg to study under the renowned lawyer, A.F.J. Thibaut; in the summer, he travelled through Switzerland and northern Italy. In 1830, he attended a concert by N. Paganini in Frankfurt am Main; in the same year, he decided to devote himself to music, interrupted his law studies, returned to Leipzig and began studying with Wieck. He published the “Abegg” Variations, completed at that time, as Op. 1 the following year. On 2 July 1831, he noted in his diary: “Completely new people are entering the diary today – two of my best friends whom I have never seen – Florestan and Eusebius.” In July, he began studying music theory with H. Dorn, and in December, he published in the “Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung” an enthusiastic review of Chopin’s Variations, Op. 2, for the first time in the form of a dialogue between Florestan and Eusebius. He also completed the Papillons piano cycle, which was the beginning of his creative path. In 1832. he gave up lessons with Wieck because of permanent damage to the motor apparatus of his right hand; almost at the same time H. Dorn left Leipzig; thus, Schumann’s musical education came to an end.

In November 1832, Schumann’s orchestral work was performed for the first time in Zwickau – the first movement of the Symphony in G minor (unfinished). In 1832–33, among other works, both sets of the Études after Paganini’s Caprices (Op. 3 and 10) and the Impromptus sur une romance de Clara Wieck Op. 5 were composed. In 1834, Schumann became secretly engaged to Ernestine von Fricken, a pupil of Wieck’s, but broke off the engagement after a year. On 3 April 1834, he published the first issue of “Neue Zeitschrift für Musik,” a magazine intended as a forum for new, romantic art, which he edited until May 1844. In the summer of 1835, he met F. Mendelssohn (then director of the Gewandhaus) and struck up a close friendship with him; through him, on 27 September, he met Chopin in Leipzig. At that time, he completed Carnaval Op. 9, dedicated to K. Lipiński, with musical “portraits” of, among others, Florestan, Eusebius, Chopin and Chiarina (Clara Wieck) and Piano Sonata No. 1 in F-sharp minor (in the first edition, he put Florestan and Eusebius as the authors). In 1836, Schumann’s mother died, and he realised that he loved Clara Wieck; F. Wieck considered him an unsuitable part for his daughter. In September, Schumann met Chopin again, and soon became friends with W.S. Bennett; in this period, he wrote, among others, Fantasy in C major Op. 17 (originally planned as a sonata). In 1837, he became engaged to Clara Wieck against her father’s will; at that time, he composed intensively (Davidsbündlertänze Op. 6, Fantasiestücke Op. 12, Symphonic Etudes Op. 13). In 1838, Schumann became a member of the Leipziger Konzertgesellschaft Euterpe. From October 1838 to March 1839, he lived in Vienna and unsuccessfully tried to transfer the editorial office of the “Neue Zeitschrift für Musik” to that city; it was then that he discovered F. Schubert’s Symphony No. 7 in C major, known as the “Great,” among the manuscripts kept by Ferdinand, the composer’s brother. In 1839, Schumann filed a lawsuit against Wieck, applying together with Clara for court approval of their marriage; Wieck defended himself, accusing Schumann of drunkenness and licentiousness. During these difficult years, he composed works that belong to Schumann’s most valuable piano cycles: Kinderszenen, Kreisleriana (dedicated to Chopin), 8 Noveletten, and soon afterwards Nachtstücke, 4 Klavierstücke and Faschingsschwank aus Wien; in 1839, he became a corresponding member of the Stuttgarter Nationalverein.

The year 1840 was called by Schumann’s biographers the “year of the song;” indeed, of the 21 opused works written at that time, 16 are songs for voice and piano, among them 4 masterly cycles: Liederkreis Op. 24, and Dichterliebe Op. 48, both to words by H. Heine, Liederkreis Op. 39, to words by J. Eichendorff, and Frauenliebe und -Leben, to words by A. Chamiss. In that year, the University of Jena awarded Schumann an honorary doctorate; in March, Schumann met Liszt; in August, a court in Dresden permitted the marriage of Schumann and Clara Wieck; the wedding took place on 12 September in Schönfeld (near Leipzig); the marriage produced 8 children, 2 of whom died in infancy.

In 1841, known as the “year of the symphony,” Symphony No. 1 was composed, performed on 31 March at the Gewandhaus under Mendelssohn and very well received; he also composed Overture and Scherzo from Op. 52, the first movement of the Piano Concerto in A minor and the first version of the Symphony in D minor, which, after an unsuccessful premiere under F. David (6 December), Schumann reworked after 10 years and designated as Symphony No. 4. The “year of chamber music” (1842) brought three string quartets, a piano quartet and a quintet, which together with three later piano trios (Op. 63, 80 and 110) form the core of his chamber oeuvre. In January 1843, Schumann met Berlioz in Leipzig; in the same year, he was appointed professor of piano and composition at the Leipzig Conservatory, newly founded by Mendelssohn; he also received the title of distinguished member of the Dutch musical society Maatschappij tot Bevordering der Toonkunst in Amsterdam. Schumann’s position in the musical world was growing, but at the same time, he was going through a period of nervous exhaustion. In January 1844, Clara Schumann set off on a concert tour from Berlin via Königsberg to St. Petersburg and Moscow, where Schumann, accompanying his wife, conducted his Symphony No. 1. In the summer, he suffered a serious nervous breakdown.

In December 1844, Schumann moved with his family to Dresden; he often met Wagner, who then was the opera director, but did not establish a closer relationship with him, but he did become friends with F. Hiller. Fascinated by the work of J.S. Bach and the issues of polyphonic texture, in 1845, he created, among others, Studies Op. 56 and Sketches Op. 58 for pedal piano, 6 Fugues on the name of BACH for organ or pedal piano and 4 Fugues Op. 72 for piano. He also wrote the 2^nd and 3^rd movements of the Piano Concerto in A minor; in 1846, the whole thing was performed in Leipzig by Clara Schumann with an orchestra conducted by Mendelssohn (first performance). Despite another health crisis, in 1846, he completed Symphony No. 2, the first performance of which took place on 5 November in Leipzig, also conducted by Mendelssohn. Schumann himself conducted a performance of the work in the summer of 1847 during a festival organised by the city of Zwickau in honour of the composer. On 4 November, Mendelssohn died; his death affected Schumann deeply. In 1848, he resigned from the position of conductor of the Liedertafel, which he had held for a year, and founded his own choral ensemble; during this time, he completed the opera Genevieve and published the didactic Album für die Jugend, written with his own children in mind.

Having found no professional satisfaction in Dresden, the Schumanns decided to leave the city in 1849; Schumann accepted an offer to become conductor of the Düsseldorf orchestra; at the same time, he completed work on, among others, Manfred after Byron (he described this work as “a dramatic poem in 3 parts with music”) and the piano cycle Waldszenen Op. 82. He also composed Conzertstück Op. 86 for 4 horns and orchestra and another, Op. 92, for piano and orchestra. In February and March 1850, the Schumanns went on a tour from Leipzig via Bremen to Hamburg. The world premiere of the opera Genevieve in Leipzig (25 June) was met with a cool reception. In September, Schumann and his family moved to Düsseldorf; at the same time, he received honorary membership of the academic Gesangverein in Leipzig. The Cello Concerto and Symphony No. 3 “Rhenish” date from this period, the first performance of which was conducted by Schumann in February 1851 in Düsseldorf. The years 1850–51 saw the creation of overtures (Die Braut von Messina, Julius Caesar, Hermann und Dorothea), Violin Sonatas No. 1 and No. 2, Piano Trio No. 3, Fantasiestücke, Op. 111 for piano (the equivalent of the cycle Romanzen Op. 28), and further vocal compositions in various genres. As early as 1851, there had been misunderstandings between Schumann and the members of the orchestra, caused – as it was claimed – by the conductor’s incompetence and absent-mindedness; in the following season, the orchestra’s board tried to persuade Schubert to resign; after the intervention of his friends, conducting duties were divided between Schumann and J. Tausch, who replaced the composer during rehearsals from 1852. In the same year, Schumann became an honorary member of the Association Royale de Société Lyrique d’Anvers. On 30 December 1852, he conducted Symphony No. 4 in D minor in Düsseldorf. In September 1853, the 20-year-old J. Brahms came to Schumann, bringing a letter of recommendation from J. Joachim; Schumann immediately recognised Brahms’s musical genius and expressed this by publishing an enthusiastic article devoted to him in the “Neue Zeitschrift für Musik.” In November, he withdrew from conducting concerts in Düsseldorf and until December, he was on tour with Clara in Holland. This year saw the creation of Schumann’s last works, including the Violin Concerto and the piano cycle Gesänge der Frühe (later he composed only the Variations on an Original Theme WoO 24). In 1854, the Collected Writings (a selection of critical texts printed in the “Neue Zeitschrift für Musik”) were published in Leipzig. In February, Schumann’s mental illness, which had been developing for some time, worsened rapidly. Tormented by auditory hallucinations (uninterrupted sequences of musical pieces), fearing that he had become possessed, on 27 February he attempted suicide by throwing himself into the Rhine. Rescued, he was placed at his own request in a closed institution in Endenich (near Bonn), where he initially tried to compose and received visits; in 1854, he was visited by J. Joachim and Brahms, among others, and in 1855 by his student and first biographer W. von Wasielewski and Bettina von Arnim. However, the composer lost consciousness more and more often and for longer. On 27 July 1856, Clara visited Schumann after receiving news from doctors about her husband’s approaching death. He died in his sleep on 29 July at the age of 46; he was buried on 31 July in Bonn, in the presence of Clara Schumann, W. von Wasielewski, Brahms, Joachim and Hiller, who delivered the funeral oration.

Schumann’s compositional legacy encompasses various genres cultivated in the first half of the 19th century, but two groups of compositions have played a significant role in the history of music: non-sonata piano cycles and solo vocal cycles. Schumann’s 25-year creative path begins with a decade of piano works (1830–39), followed by three years devoted to songs (1840), orchestral music (1841) and chamber music (1842). In 1843, only Das Paradies und die Peri was composed (a form similar to an oratorio); 1844 was a year of creative stagnation. In 1845–53, Schumann focused on vocal ensemble compositions (as a choir conductor in Dresden), and then on orchestral compositions (as a conductor in Düsseldorf). However, it would be difficult to determine distinct phases in Schumann’s work solely on the basis of the features of musical language. The only clear turning point is the turn of 1840 and 1841. The composer took on a difficult challenge at that time, an attempt to reconcile the principles of the sonata cycle with the already-formed features of his own musical language and an attempt to master the technique of orchestral composition. After 1840, only a few works by Schumann were created that were of comparable importance to his earlier works. These include Symphony No. 4, concertos (piano and cello), Waldszenen, 3 Fantasiestücke, Gesänge der Frühe and several chamber works.

The process of shaping Schumann’s compositional style in 1827–32 was greatly influenced by studying the works of Beethoven and Schubert, as well as reading the novels and theoretical-literary writings of Jean Paul and the literary and critical-musical texts of E. T. A. Hoffmann. During his stay in Leipzig before May 1829, Schumann heard Beethoven’s symphonies and soon became familiar with his piano sonatas and variations, chamber works, and the song cycle An die ferne Geliebte. He interpreted Schubert’s style mainly from his piano works, including the collections of waltzes, polonaises and variations; hence the inspiration for dance music in many of Schumann’s early works. Following Schubert’s example, he replaced development work with the technique of variants, which he considered the basis for developing an integrated multi-movement cycle, transferring some of the principles of shaping the thematic process to non-sonata piano cycles. Beethoven’s aesthetics inspired Schumann to introduce extra-musical references into multi-movement instrumental works, giving a poetic atmosphere and suggesting the existence of an overarching, ideological unity of the work. Schumann’s compositional technique, however, was not influenced by Chopin’s style.

Being convinced that “the aesthetics of one art are the aesthetics of another; only the material is different” (Gesammelte Schriften..., vol. 1/2, p. 43, see Editions), Schumann regarded the area of ​​all arts as a single source of inspiration from which he drew freely. He emphasised that he learned counterpoint from Jean Paul, not from music theorists. He later became interested in the works of E. T. A. Hoffmann. Schumann’s anti-philistine “David’s Union” is a copy of Hoffmann’s literary “Serapion Brethren.” Schumann made the principle of contrast subordinated to unity contained in Hoffmann’s poetics (“Serapioneer principle,” “Callot manner”) a hallmark of his musical idiom. In his compositions, he focused on the technical coherence of the work, the issue of fantasy and characteristics, and in his writings, he focused on creative genius, the idea-spirit of the work, romanticism, and relations between poetry and musical prose. He also joined the discussion on music programmes, and postulated a model of music supported by a poetic idea, conveying and evoking emotions, but free from illustrative imitation and concretisation of extra-musical content. He emphasised that extra-musical references were often not a source of inspiration for him, but were born during work or after the completion of the work. The titles of Schumann’s compositions usually suggest only the general expressive climate of the work, do not restrict the listener’s imagination and allow for the free reception of purely musical qualities.

Schumann’s contribution to the development of romantic piano music can only be compared to the achievements of Chopin. The exceptional shape of the German composer’s legacy is determined by his focus on the genre of multi-movement non-sonata and non-variation composition. These are cycles, more than half of which were integrated using many musical parameters, taking into account the form-creating role of contrast, in a way that excluded any arbitrary rearrangement of links. The degree of integration, previously unseen in seemingly similar cycles (e.g. in Beethoven’s Bagatellen), indicates new formal solutions; the formal expansion of the links in some cycles means that the commonly used term “miniature cycles” is often inadequate. Four groups of these compositions can be distinguished. The 1^st group is represented by the “carnival” cycles, Op. 2 and 9 (Papillons 1831, Carnaval 1835), with a fairly large number of links (12 and 20) presented in aphoristic forms. The second one includes the “self-portraits” cycles, Op. 6 and 16 (Davidsbündlertänze 1837 and Kreisleriana 1838), reflecting three types of Schumann’s alter egos – Florestan and Eusebius, and the character of the mad Kapellmeister J. Kreisler, borrowed from E.T.A. Hoffmann; these are compositions devoid of conventional ornamental elements and virtuoso effects. The highest degree of intensity of emotional expression is achieved by maximum orderliness of the technical layer, especially in the 8-part cycle Kreisleriana. The most important work from the 3^rd group (1838–39) is the 8-part cycle Noveletten Op. 21. The 4^th group (1845–53), represented by, among others, Waldszenen (1848–49) and Gesänge der Frühe (1853), is characterised by increasing clarity of musical language and increasingly subtle relations between the links of the cycle.

The first implementation of the concept of integration in connection with strong contrasting is Papillons. The coherence of the cycle is the result of introducing two parallel, contrasting thematic processes, three distinct rhythmic groups, the dominance of triple meters (proper for the waltzes and polonaises that dominate in the cycle) and the precise alignment of the orders of key groups and dominant textures. In Carnival, the bonding processes were intensified. The macroform takes on a shape similar to an arch in accordance with the agogic course and succession of forms. The extreme links of the cycle retain the same agogic and formal shape. The arrangement of keys and the location of the two initial pitch cells (called “sphinxes” by Schumann and being the sound equivalent of the letters in the name of the city Asch), which connect most of the links of the cycle, emphasise the two-phase nature of the work. In the 1^st phase, the keys of B-flat major and E-flat major dominate, in the 2^nd phase A-flat major and F minor; the turning point is the key of C minor, which appears only in the portrait of Chiarina (Clara Wieck). In the next portrait (of Chopin), the main key of the cycle, A-flat major, returns; this link – the only one in measure 4 connecting binary and ternary divisions – constitutes the metric centre of the cycle, from then on, the “sphinxes” take on a different form.

In Davidsbündlertänze, contrasting technical means serve to present the different characters of Florestan and Eusebius. The musical portrait of the former is framed by the composer in an open form (i.e. containing new musical material at the end of the piece), and the value of the movement unit is over 300 beats per minute, a dynamic fourth motif appears and three expressions: wild, mit Humor, frisch (violently, with humour, lively). The musical portrait of Eusebius is framed by the composer in a closed form, the value of the movement unit is from 152 to 280; it introduces a stable arch motif and a different palette of expressions: einfach, mit Empfindung, zart und singend (naturally, with feeling, delicately and melodiously). All changes in key, meters, rhythms and textures are associated with different takes on both figures in subsequent portraits. The clarity of the macroform in Kreisleriana results from the superposition of integration processes based on sharp contrast, taking place in several layers. In the first half of the cycle, there are alternating minor links with a uniform rhythm (in the meter of 4) and figurative texture, occurring at a fast tempo, in an arch form; in the thematic process, the interval of a fourth appears. They are contrasted with links in the key of B-flat major, with a varied rhythm and texture (figurations occur very rarely), maintained at a slow tempo; in the thematic process, an arch motif appears. In the second half of the cycle, the arrangement of elements is modified, but the entirety is dominated by minor links with a strong dramatic expression, inspired by the figure of Kreisler. The extensive (2501 bars) Noveletten is based on a segmental structure. The distribution of moments of contrast and repetitions determines the arch shape of the macroform: contrasts are located at the edges of the cycle, while the strongest similarity connects the central pieces. In the last piano cycle Gesänge der Frühe, integration processes take place on the agogic, metrorhythmic, textural and formal planes; in the process, the form is shaped in a new way: the sharp juxtapositions typical of arch and rondo patterns are replaced by monothematicity and weakly marked contrast. The cycle also shows traces of material unity. Schumann confirmed here his mastery in constructing a coherent, multi-phase form.

In addition to the aforementioned cycles belonging to the trend of fantasy pieces, as well as cycles of variations (Op. 1, 5 and 13), compositions for didactic purposes (for adults and youth, including for 4 hands) and two collections of pieces from 1832–49 (Op. 99 and 124), an important place in Schumann’s piano output is occupied by three sonatas and two related compositions: the 3-phase Fantasia Op. 17 realised on the plan of a sonata cycle and the 5-part Viennese Carnival Op. 26 (rondo – scherzo – romanza – intermezzo – sonata allegro). Schumann’s concept of the sonata is strongly connected with his concept of non-sonata cycles (frequent censoring of form). Schumann’s sonatas do not show reformist tendencies, but are a manifestation of a strong compositional individuality, focused mainly on creating fantastic poetic images, unconstrained by norms.

The piano works of the 1930s shaped and matured Schumann’s compositional skills. In resolving the issue of form, Schumann used two strongly contrasting schemes: the arch form (ABA) or the rondo (in many variants), or introduced unique solutions (open, chain forms, also monothematic forms shaped evolutionarily). The clear segmentation of form typical of non-sonata cycles influenced the shape of the sonata allegro, especially in piano sonatas (to a lesser extent in symphonies and other genres). This was compounded by the lack of freedom in conducting development work and a predilection for using strict and variant repetitions of motivic material.

Unlike Chopin and Liszt, Schumann did not treat tonality as an area of ​​experimentation. However, attention is drawn to his specific way of building the melodic thread (different from that of Chopin and Mendelssohn), which in piano pieces from 1830–39 consisted of a strict or variant repetition of short sections, often divided by rests; such a form of melody can be called “disintegrated”. Forms with a marginal role of the second interval, giving the impression of being non-linear, are not uncommon. More broadly developed melodic lines, frequent in works with a dramatic expression, are not shaped on the model of the vocal cantilena. The cantilena melodic style appears on a larger scale only in Schumann’s songs (from 1840). The “disintegrated” form of melody is closely linked to a clearly formed rhythm. Rhythmic motifs are simplified, undergoing multiple repetitions censored by rests, which emphasises the lack of melodic continuity. Favourite rhythmic forms, determining the character of many piano cycles, include dotted groups (in eighth meters – trochaic rhythm), syncopations and often accompanying pulsation based on identical rhythmic values. Rhythms shaped in this way are of great importance in the processes of integrating cyclic forms. In early pieces from 1830–39, tripartite meters dominate, in later ones – duple meters, which is related to the decidedly rarer occurrence of the dance idiom in this phase of Schumann’s work. From 1840, the dominance of duple meters is no longer as strong. Among metric phenomena, there is successive and simultaneous polymetry, often as a consequence of short-term disruption of the metric flow by shifting accents. Another element that determines the shape of the stylistic idiom of Schumann’s piano legacy is texture. The most important thing here is not the “symphonic” texture of virtuoso pieces (op. 3, 10, 13, 76, fragments of op. 21), but the modern solutions used in fantasy pieces (e.g. op. 2, 6, 9, 12, 16, 21). They feature complex arrangements with a variable number of voices, often joining briefly and then separating again. Towards the end of the decade 1830–39, the “marching” idiom emerged in Schumann’s piano music, characterised by an extensive chordal texture combined with duple metre and even rhythm. It had a very negative influence on the shape of Schumann’s piano texture, hindering its further development. Later, it also weighed on the orchestral texture of his works, dominated the composer’s way of thinking about shaping sound space and pushed into the background the polyphonic, often figurative texture characteristic of the fantasy movement. The contrapuntal technique present in Schumann since the beginning of the decade appears gradually more and more expressively, especially from 1845.

The second group in Schumann’s work, important in terms of music history, consists of solo songs. The desire to tackle vocal music, long considered by Schumann to be less important than instrumental music, was supported by Clara and Mendelssohn, whose songs, alongside Beethoven’s and Schubert’s, were the composer’s strongest source of inspiration. He composed solo songs particularly intensively in 1840; at that time, integrated cycles and collections were created, sometimes provided with literary titles and widely expanded (26 songs in Myrthen Op. 25), at other times simply referred to as “Gesänge” or “Gedichte,” traditionally grouped into 3, 6 or 12 pieces. From then on, the composer wrote songs with varying intensity throughout his life, publishing some of them (e.g. Op. 51, 64, 77) in collections, mainly in 1849–52, when he also created his last major works for voice and piano (including Lieder und Gesänge aus “Wilhelm Meister” Op. 98a to words by Goethe, Gedichte der Königin Maria Stuart Op. 135 and Spanische Liebeslieder Op. 138 to words by E. Geibl). E. Sams finds in Schumann’s song output a reflection of many aspects of the composer’s personality, including the alternating states of excitement and depression, activity and passivity characteristic of Florestan and Eusebius. Some of the most outstanding song cycles from 1840, such as Liederkreis Op. 24 and Dichterliebe Op. 48 to words by Heine, Liederkreis Op. 39 to words by Eichendorff, Frauenliebe und -Leben Op. 42 to words by Chamisso, are strongly integrated thanks to the fusion of the text content (themes of love, longing, suffering and death) and the musical layer. Schumann used many compositional devices developed in piano cycles. The coherence of the musical layer is achieved in many ways. In Liederkreis Op. 39, the interval of a fifth connects a significant part of the vocal motifs and the accompaniment parts. In the cycle Frauenliebe und -Leben op. 42, in the outer links there is a “material clasp” (repeat of material from the first link in the finale), and the accompaniment is dominated by chordal texture. In Dichterliebe Op. 48, duple meter, trochaic rhythm and declamatory presentation of the text dominate. The motifs are integrated by a “pendular” second cell and a three-note motif; in addition, it is essential to close the subsequent songs with a long postlude, which reinforces the atmosphere of the text. In the late collection Spanisches Liebeslieder Op. 138, Schumann went beyond genre boundaries, including two duets and a quartet, assigning the accompaniment to four hands, and arranging the whole, consisting of ten parts, using instrumental links: 1. (Vorspiel) and 6. (Intermezzo).

In Schumann’s extensive vocal legacy (solo, chamber and choral), there are various formal types of songs (from stanzaic to recomposed), various relations between the vocal and piano parts (from complete line agreement to full autonomy), various types of melodics (declamatory dominance). In the musical layer, a significant role is also played by the freely applied principle of reprise, often unrelated to text repetitions. The wide range of sizes of vocal cycle links is also noteworthy, from a dozen to a hundred and over a dozen bars. In the more extensive songs, there are changes of key and metre, as well as diatonic-chromatic and textural contrasts. In the accompaniment part, in addition to transparent chord and figurative arrangements, many songs use complex figures developed in earlier piano works. The fine-tuning of the smallest textural details enhances the impression of a complete unification of the musical and verbal layers. The unity of conveying the mood of poetry and the shape of its musical form, without resorting to superficial illustration, was the goal of Schumann’s compositional activities; hence the category of mood is considered a constitutive category of Schumann’s vocal lyricism, distinguishing his songs from the songs of his predecessors, including Schubert, with whom he is sometimes compared. In addition to the texts of the previously mentioned poets, Schumann also set the poetry of Schiller, Lenau, Rückert, Byron, Moore, Burns, and H. Ch. Andersen. However, it is necessary to emphasise above all the significance of Heine’s work, which was an impulse for Schumann to create works that set the standard for the genre for the next generation.

The direct impulse to re-enter the world of orchestral music (after a youthful attempt, the 2^nd movement of the Symphony in G minor from 1832–33) was given to Schumann in the late 1830s by Schubert’s Symphony in C major, known as the “Great,” which he did not treat as a model, however. Over the course of nine weeks, between January and March 1841, Schumann completed Symphony No. 1. As in many of the piano and vocal cycles he had created earlier, he took care to ensure a distinct unity of the motifs of the successive movements. He used this technique several more times in his orchestral works; the care taken to ensure a high degree of integration of the symphonic cycles determines the significance of his symphonic legacy in the history of 19^th-century music. The orchestral core of Schumann’s output consists of four symphonies, each of which can be interpreted as an attempt to refer to a different tradition. The symphonies entitled “Spring” and “Rhenish” could be placed in the programme symphony genre, but Schumann decided not to include movement titles in the score of Symphony No. 1, believing that they would interfere too much with the listener’s imagination. The specificity of the “Rhenish” Symphony is primarily determined by the introduction of a solemn, chorale character in the fourth movement, which emphasises the mood of the work. Symphonies No. 2 and No. 4, devoid of extra-musical threads, are (together with Symphony No. 3 “Rhenish”) a field of macroform experiments. The symphonies present four different concepts of the macroform of the cycle, with symphonies No. 1, No. 2 and No. 4 having a common feature: a slow introduction in the first movement and the relatedness of the motif material of the individual movements of the cycle. Symphony No. 1 refers most strongly to classical models: the first movement is its key link. The cycle of Symphony No. 2 consists of two time-proportionate phases closed by links in livelier tempos; in 3^rd place in the cycle, there is Adagio espressivo with great emotional expression, saturated with developed cantilena developed contrapuntally, comparable in size to the first link. In Symphony No. 3 the sonata cycle is expanded to five parts; between the scherzo and the finale there are two slow parts, the first of which is a kind of intermezzo between two phases of the cycle, shaped similarly to Symphony No. 2. The full sonata cycle, strongly and very legibly integrated in terms of motifs, is presented by Symphony No. 4, an exceptionally dynamic composition performed attacca. The motivic material included in the first movement is the source of the themes of the slow part and the finale.

Schumann’s symphonies retained the model of orchestral formation later used by symphonists of the second half of the 19^th century (Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Dvořák). It consists of wooden instruments in double formation (flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon), four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, timpani and strings. In Symphonies No. 1–3, there are extensive tutti planes (more clearly reduced only in the slow movements), only in the final version of Symphony No. 4 they are significantly limited, resulting in a different sound character of this work. Schumann’s orchestration is characterised by frequent doubling of instrument parts (both melodic and filler parts), dominance of the 1^st violin part and overuse of the tremolo effect in the string group; doubling of voices becomes particularly noticeable in the late works. G. Mahler tried to solve this problem by making corrections to the orchestration of Schumann’s symphonies. Despite many reservations expressed by both music theorists and composers, Schumann’s symphonies belong to the world canon of symphonic literature.

Among Schumann’s other orchestral works, the overture from the stage music to Manfred deserves special attention, as it testifies to Schumann’s orchestral talent, here visible in the free use of the means of performance (the orchestra additionally includes piccolo, English horn, tuba, bass drum, cymbals, harp and organ). The inspiration from the figure of the Byronic hero, with whom Schumann could identify, allowed him to achieve high dynamics of form and a variety of textures and sounds. Among Schumann’s concert works, Piano Concerto stands out, integrated in motifs, departing from the concert tradition towards a more freely formed cycle, and the 3-movement Cello Concerto (performed attacca), Schumann’s most valuable orchestral work. Both concertos, Symphony No. 4 and the Overture “Manfred” prove that not yielding to the pressure of norms related to formal and genre tradition, and even more so creating in a genre that is formally free by design, brought excellent artistic results in Schumann’s work.

Schumann’s chamber works combined the strong expressiveness of the piano cycles from 1837–39 with the lyrical climate of the songs of the 1840s; this resulted in the creation of very dynamic and, at the same time, personal works. The reference to the waltz idiom (rarely used by Schumann since the end of the 1830s) in the third movement of Piano Trio No. 2 allowed the creation of an unusual sonata cycle in terms of dramaturgy, with a strong expressive dominance in the slow movement, analogous to that used in Symphony No. 2. In both compositions, maintained in a major key, with a cheerful character, the third movements are maintained in a minor key and distinguished by melancholy. This particularly intimate tone appears only in some songs and piano works. A separate group is formed by quasi-program compositions (Op. 73, 88, 94, 102, 113 and 132), some of which constitute a chamber analogy of the piano fantasy pieces. Schumann’s chamber works show a certain expressive kinship with such chamber pieces by Mendelssohn as the piano trios and the last string quartet, saturated with a moving, tense, sometimes even tragic emotional climate, together with which they influenced Brahms’s chamber music.

Schumann’s only opera, Genoveva, never entered the permanent repertoire, but contemporaries (including O. Jahn) noticed in it a tendency to renounce the autonomy of scenes in favour of maintaining musical continuity through motivic and textural devices. Also rarely performed are two vocal-instrumental works by Schumann that are similar to an oratorio: Das Paradies und die Peri and Scenen aus Goethes “Faust”, which are distinguished by the dynamics of their dramatic development and mystical atmosphere, especially in the third part. A less fortunate realisation of the dramatic thread is the “magic fairy tale” La Pilgrimage of the Rose Op. 112 (not intended for stage performance). An example of Schumann’s ability to create new lyrical genres, also in the field of vocal-orchestral music, is Requiem für Mignon Op. 98b, the original pendant to Lieder und Gesänge aus “Wilhelm Meister”, Op. 98a to words by Goethe, more akin to the song idiom than the oratorio. Of Schumann’s religious output, two works written in Düsseldorf stand out: Mass in C minor Op. 147, and the Requiem in D-flat major Op. 148.

For 22 years, Schumann tried to fulfil his mission as a critic paving the way for new music with dedication, but his texts are sometimes less polished and contain unjustified assessments. Historical significance can be attributed to Schumann’s first and last reviews (Ein Werk II 1831, Neue Bahnen 1853), in which he considered Chopin and Brahms, who were only at the beginning of their creative path, to be geniuses. He lowered his assessment of Chopin’s creative achievements as the Polish composer’s style became more individual, and his reviews of the Preludes and Sonata No. 2 clearly indicate a lack of understanding of Chopin’s already fully formed musical language. At the same time, Schumann’s accusations seem absurd, as they concern features of the compositional workshop common to both artists. A significant role in the development of European music criticism was played by the review of Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique (1835), in which Schumann devoted much attention to issues of the program and included an extensive analysis of the technical layer of the work. The importance of this article can only be compared to that of E.T.A. Hoffmann’s text on Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony (1810).

Schumann’s compositional activity places him among the leading figures of 19^th-century European music. This includes, above all, Schumann’s piano and song works, his technical achievements (especially in the field of piano and vocal texture), the creation and consolidation of the concept of a non-sonata, closely integrated cycle of piano pieces, the establishment of a model for the integration of the vocal cycle, and the consistent implementation of the concept of “spiritual” music, emotionally saturated, free from the literalness of programmes.

Editions: Robert Schumanns Werke, ed. C. Schumann, J. Brahms et al., Leipzig 1879– 93; Robert Schumann. Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, ed. A. Mayeda, K.W. Niemöller et al., 14 volumes, Mainz 1991—; Robert Schumann. Tagebücher, 3 volumes, vol. 1: 1827–1838, ed. G. Eismann, Leipzig 1971, 21981, vol. 2: 1836–1854, ed. G. Nauhaus, Leipzig 1987, vol. 3: Haushaltbücher (1837–56), ed. G. Nauhaus, Leipzig 1982; Robert Schumann. Gesammelte Schriften über Musik und Musiker, 4 volumes, Leipzig 1854, reprint Wiesbaden 1985.

Literature:

Documentation — Robert Schumann. Thematisches Verzeichnis sämtlicher im Druck erschienenen musikalischen Werke, ed. A. Dörffel, Leipzig 1860, 5^th ed. extended and revised by K. Hofmann and S. Keil, Hamburg 1982; G. Eismann Nachweis der internationalen Standorte von Notenautographen Robert Schumanns, «Sammelbände der R.-Sch.- Gesellschaft» II, Leipzig 1966; K. Hofmann Die Erstdrucke der Werke von Robert Schumann, Tutzing 1979; F. Munte Verzeichnis des deutschsprachigen Schrifttums über Robert Schumann. 1856–1970, Hamburg 1972.

Jugendbriefe von Robert Schumann, ed. C. Schumann, Leipzig 1885, 4^th ed. 1910; Robert Schumanns Briefe. Neue Folge, ed. F.G. Jansen, Leipzig 1886, 41904; Clara und Robert Schumann. Briefwechsel. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, 3 volumes, ed. E. Weissweiler, Basel 1984, 1987, 2001.

Robert Schumann. Ein Quellen werk über sein Leben und Schaffen, ed. G. Eismann, Leipzig 1956; E. Schumann Robert Schumann. Ein Lebensbild meines Vaters, Leipzig 1931; E. Flechsig Erinnerungen an Robert Schumann, “Neue Zeitschrift für Musik” CXVII, 1956.

E. Burger and G. Nauhaus Robert Schumann. Eine Lebenschronik in Bildern und Dokumenten, Mainz 1998; G. Eismann Robert Schumann. Eine Biographie in Wort und Bild, Leipzig 1956, extended 2^nd ed. 1964.

Special issues — «Sammelbände der Robert-Schumann-Gesellschaft» I, II, Leipzig 1961, 1966; «Schumann-Tage» I, Karl-Marx-Stadt 1976; «Robert-Schumann-Tage» X, ed. G. Müller, Zwickau 1985; Schumann I, II, “Musik-Konzepte,” ed. H.-K. Metzger, R. Riehn, Munich 1981, 1982; “Schumann-Studien” I, II, Zwickau 1988, 1989, III–IV, V, VI, Cologne 1994, 1996, 1997, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, Sinzig 2004, 2006, 2008, 2012, 2015, XII Würzburg 2021. (https://www.schumann-portal.de/schumannstudien.html); Schumann-Journal (https://www.schumannjournal.net/home-7.html); “Correspondenz: Mitteilungen der Robert-Schumann-Gesellschaft” I-XLV, Düsseldorf 1980- 2023; Schumann Forschungen (https://www.schumannportal.de/schumann-forschungen.html https://www.schumannga.de/wordpress/?page_id=10): Robert Schumann. Ein romantisches Erbe in neuer Forschung. 8 Studien, ed. Robert-Schumann-Gesellschaft, Mainz 1984; Schumanns Werke. Text und Interpretation. 16 Studien, ed. A. Mayeda, K.W. Niemöller, Mainz 1987; Schumann in Düsseldorf. Werke – Texte – Interpretationen, ed. B.R. Appel, Mainz 1993; Schumann und seine Dichter, ed. M. Wendt, Mainz 1993; Robert Schumann und die französische Romantik, ed. U. Bär, Mainz 1997; “Neue Bahnen.” Robert Schumann und seine musikalischen Zeitgenossen, ed. B.R. Appel, Mainz 2002; Robert und Clara Schumann und die nationalen Musikkulturen des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. M. Wendt, Mainz 2005; Robert Schumann in Endenich (1854-1856). Krankenakten, Briefzeugnis und zeitgenössische Berichte, ed. B.R. Appel, Mainz 2006; Robert Schumann, das Violoncello und die Cellisten seiner Zeit, ed. B.R. Appel, M. Wendt, Mainz 2007; B.R. Appel Vom Einfall zum Werk. Robert Schumanns Schaffensweise, Mainz 2010; “Eine neue poetische Zeit.” 175 Jahre Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, ed. M. Beiche, A. Koch, Mainz 2013;

Robert Schumann. A Symposium, ed. G. Abraham, London 1972; Robert Schumann: Interpretationen seiner Werke, ed. H. Loos, Laaber 2005; “Musik Theorie: Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft” XXI/3 (2006): Robert Schumann; Robert Schumann (1820–1856), ed. J. Distler, M. Heinemann, Berlin 2006; Schumann-Handbuch, ed. U. Tadday, Stuttgart 2006; “Das letzte Wort der Kunst”: Heinrich Heine und Robert Schumann zum 150. Todesjahr, ed. J.A. Kruse, M. Tilch, U. Groos, B.R. Appel, Stuttgart 2006; Zwischen Poesie und Musik: Robert Schumann, früh und spät: Begleitbuch und Katalog zur Ausstellung, ed. I. Bodsch, Stroemfeld 2006; Robert Schumann und die Öffentlichkeit: Hans Joachim Köhler zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. H. Loos, Leipzig 2007; Robert Schumanns ‘Welten’, ed. M. Gervink, Dresden 2007; Übergänge: Zwischen Künsten und Kulturen: Internationaler Kongress zum 150. Todesjahr von Heinrich Heine und Robert Schumann, ed. H. Herwig, Stuttgart 2007; The Cambridge Companion to Schumann, ed. B. Perrey, Cambridge 2007; Robert Schumann und die große Form: Referate des Bonner Symposions 2006 ed. B. Sponheuer, W. Steinbeck, Frankfurt am Main 2009; “Neue Zeitschrift für Musik” CLXXI/4 (July–August 2010): Schumann 200, Mainz 2010; Rethinking Schumann, ed. R.-M. Kok, L. Tunbridge, New York 2011; Robert Schumann: Persönlichkeit, Werk und Wirkung, ed. H. Loos, Leipzig 2011; Schumann interpretieren, ed. J.-J. Dünki, Würzburg 2014; Neue Bahnen: Symposium Schumann-Aspekte/Ausstellung Robert Schumann und Johannes Brahms, ed. W. Sandberger, Lubeka 2019.

Biographies, monographs —W. v. Wasielewski Robert Schumann, Dresden 1858, extended 2^nd ed. 1906; F. Niecks Robert Schumann. A Supplementary and Corrective Biography, London 1925; R. Schauffler Florestan. The Life and Work of Robert Schumann, New York 1945; K.H. Wörner Robert Schumann, Zurich 1949; P. and W. Rehberg Robert Schumann. Sein Leben und sein Werk, Zurich 1954; P.M. Young Tragic Muse. Life and Works of Robert Schumann, London 1957, 2^nd ed. 1961, German ed. Leipzig 1968; Robert Schumann. The Man and his Music, ed. A. Walker, London 1972, 2^nd ed. 1976; H. Swolkień Robert Schumann, Warsaw1973; A. Edler Robert Schumann und seine Zeit, Laaber 1982; R. Taylor Robert Schumann. His Life and Work, London 1982; J. Chisell Schumann, London 1989; U. Rauchfleisch Robert Schumann. Leben und Werk. Eine Psychobiographie, Stuttgart 1990; J. Daverio Robert Schumann. Herald of a “New Poetic Age”, New York 1997; U. Rauchfleisch Robert Schumann: Eine psychoanalytische Annäherung, Göttingen 2004; M. Demmler Robert Schumann: ‘Ich hab’ im Traum geweinet’—Eine Biografie, Leipzig 2006; T.R. Payk Robert Schumann: Lebenslust und Leidenszeit, Bonn 2006; A. Edler Robert Schumann und seine Zeit, Laaber 2008; P. Gülke Robert Schumann: Glück und Elend der Romantik, Vienna 2010; D. Hoffmann-Axthelm Robert Schumann: Eine musikalisch-psychologisch Studie, Stuttgart 2010; H. Loos Robert Schumann: Werk und Leben, Vienna 2010; E.F. Jensen Schumann (2^nd ed.), New York 2012; L. Erhardt Robert Schumann: Szkice do monografii, Warsaw 2013; M. Geck Robert Schumann: The life and work of a Romantic composer, Chicago 2013; R. Michaelsen Der komponierte Zweifel: Robert Schumann und die Selbstreflexion in der Musik, Munich 2015.

Analyses of work —F.G. Jansen Die Davidsbündler. Aus Robert Schumanns Sturm- und Drangperiode, Leipzig 1883; F. Schnapp Heinrich Heine und Robert Schumann, Hamburg 1924; W. Gertler Robert Schumann in seinen frühen Klavierwerken, Wolfenbüttel 1931; W. Schwarz Schumann und die Variation…, Kassel 1932; H. Kötz Der Einfluss Jean Pauls auf Robert Schumann, Weimar 1933; Robert Schumann aus Anlass seines 100. Todestages, ed. H. Moser and E. Rebling, Leipzig 1956; G. v. Dadelsen Robert Schumann und die Musik Bachs, “Archiv für Musikwissenschaft” XIV, 1957; E. Lippmann Theory and Practice in Schumanns Aesthetics, “Journal of the American Musicological Society” XVII, 1964; D. Kämper Zur Frage der Metronombezeichnungen Robert Schumanns, AfMw XXI, 1964; E. Sams Did Schumann use Ciphers?, “The Musical Times” CVI, 1965; T.A. Brown The Aesthetics of Robert Schumann, Westport 1968; A. Gebhardt Robert Schumann als Symphoniker, Regensburg 1968; E. Sams The Songs of Robert Schumann, London 1969, 3^rd ed. 1993; S. Walsh The Lieder of Schumann, London 1971; A. Desmond Schumann Songs, London 1972; J. Chisell Schumann Piano Music, London 1972; S. Keil Untersuchungen zur Fugentechnik in Robert Schumanns Instrumentalschaffen, Hamburg 1973; K. Musioł Robert Schumann o Chopinie, in: Chopin a muzyka europejska, ed. K. Musioł, Katowice 1977; L. Plantinga Schumann as Critic, New Haven 1977; Robert Schumann. Universalgeist der Romantik, ed. J. Alf and J.A. Kruze, Düsseldorf 1981; Mendelssohn and Schumann Essays on their Work and its Context, ed. J.W. Finson and R.L. Todd, Durham (North Carolina) 1984; A. Newcomb Schumann and Late Eighteenth Century Narrative Strategies, “Nineteenth Century Music” XI, 1987/88; G. Dietel “Eine neue poetische Zeit”. Musikanschauung und stilistische Tendenzen im Klavierwerk Robert Schumanns, Kassel 1989; M. Nawrocka Dzieło muzyczne w interpretacjach E.T.A. Hoffmanna, R. Schumanna i R. Wagnera, in: Analiza i interpretacja dzieła muzycznego, ed. T. Malecka, Kr. 1990; M. Waldura Monomotivik Sequenz und Sonatenform im Werk Robert Schumanns, Saarbrücken 1990; Robert Schumann und die Dichter. Ein Musiker als Leser, ed. B.R. Appel and I. Hermstrüwer, Düsseldorf 1991; A. Mayeda Robert Schumanns Weg zur Symphonie, Zurich 1992; B. Bischoff Monument für Beethoven. Die Entwicklung der Beethoven-Rezeption Robert Schumanns, Cologne 1994; Schumann and his World, ed. R.L. Todd, Princeton (New Jersey) 1994; M.L. Maintz Franz Schubert in der Rezeption Robert Schumanns, Kassel 1995; Ch. Rosen The Romantic Generation, Cambridge (Massachusetts) 1995; B. Hoeckner Schumann and Romantic Distance, “Journal of the American Musicological Society” L, 1997; Z. Chechlińska Technika wariacyjna w twórczości Chopina i Schumanna, K.W. Niemöller Chopin w „Związku Dawida” Roberta Schumanna. Aspekty złożonych stosunków, W. Nowik W poszukiwaniu formy dla romantycznej ekspresji. Tria g-moll Chopina i Schumanna, K. Komarnicki Fantazja op. 17 Roberta Schumanna. Próba nowego spojrzenia and A. Chwiłek Integracja motywiczna we wczesnych cyklach fortepianowych Roberta Schumanna, «Chopin w Kręgu Przyjaciół» III, ed. I. Poniatowska, Warsaw 1997; H. Krebs Fantasy Pieces. Metrical Dissonance in the Music of Robert Schumann, New York 1999; T. Samerek Koncert wiolonczelowy Roberta Schumanna. Intrygująca koncepcja świata wewnętrznego przeżywania, «Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Muzycznej w Gdańsku» No. 32, 2000; A. Chwiłek Integracja formy w cyklach fortepianowych Roberta Schumanna, «Prace Specjalne Akademii Muzycznej w Gdańsku» No. 59, 2001; A. Chwiłek Muzyczna i literacka idea jedności w wielości. Związki estetyki Roberta Schumanna z estetyką Jeana Paula i E.T.A. Hoffmanna, “Przegląd Muzykologiczny” II, 2002; M. Negrey Mendelssohn i Schumann. Dwie propozycje symfonii romantycznej, in: Beethoven 2. Studia i interpretacje, ed. M. Tomaszewski and M. Chrenkoff, Kraków 2003; A. Chwiłek Utwory Roberta Schumanna na Pedalflugel. Dwa oblicza idei jedności dzieła muzycznego, in: Muzyka wobec tradycji. Idee – dzieło – recepcja, Warsaw 2004; W. Salmen Robert Schumann und der Tanz, in: Wegbegleiter im Diskurs: Musikhistorisches Kolloquium von Kollegen und Freunden Arnfried Edlers am 12. April 2003, Hochschule für Musik und Theater Hannover, Hannover 2004; A.H. Celenza Schumann’s Neue Zeitschrift für Musik on the formation of music communities in the mid-nineteenth century, “Journal of musicological research” 24(1), 2005; A. Chwiłek Problematyka gatunkowa Novelletten Op. 21 R. Schumanna, “Polski Rocznik Muzykologiczny” V, 2006; A. Chwiłek Idea jedności w wielości w cyklach fortepianowych Roberta Schumanna, in: Semiotyka cyklu. Cykl w muzyce, plastyce i literaturze, Białystok 2006; M. Becker-Adden Nahtstellen: Strukturelle Analogien der Kreisleriana von E.T.A. Hoffmann und Robert Schumann, Bielefeld 2006; T. Synofzik Heinrich Heine, Robert Schumann: Musik und Ironie, Cologne–Rheinkassel 2006; J.W. Finson Robert Schumann: The book of songs, Cambridge 2007; P. Rummenhöller Die ungleichen Dioskuren: Zum Verhältnis Robert Schumanns zu Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy in: Vom Erkennen des Erkannten: Musikalische Analyse und Editionsphilologie—Festschrift für Christian Martin Schmidt, Wiesbaden 2007; E. Sams Why Florestan and Eusebius?, in: www.ericsams.org/index.php/on-music/essays/onschumann/104-why-florestan-and-eusebius; J. Skorek-Münch Robert Schumann wobec projektu muzyki absolutnej: Tria fortepianowe, „De musica commentarii” I, 2008; A. Chwiłek Znaczenie ostatnich pieśni Roberta Schumanna i Johannesa Brahmsa w ich późnej twórczości, “Polski Rocznik Muzykologiczny” VII, 2009; A.H. Weaver Poetry, music and Fremdartigkeit in Robert Schumann’s Hans Christian Andersen songs, op. 40, “Nineteenth-century music review” 6(2), 2009; R. Hallmark Robert Schumann: The poet sings, in: German lieder in the nineteenth century, New York 2010; L. Lohmann Robert Schumann’s organ (?) music: Hints on its performance, “RCO journal” IV, 2010; T. Synofzik Heinrich Heine—Robert Schumann: Musik und Ironie (2^nd ed.), Cologne 2010; N. Currie Another perspective on Robert Schumann’s personality, “Journal of musicological research” 30(2), 2011; A. Szklener “Was du thust, was dir gefällt, ist Gesetz”: Schumann wobec Chopina, in: Muzyka jest zawsze współczesna: Studia dedykowane Profesor Alicji Jarzębskiej, Kraków 2011; C. Rosen Robert Schumann, a vision of the future, in: Freedom and the arts: Essays on music and literature, Cambridge 2012; E. Tarasti „…ein leiser Ton gezogen…”: Fantazja C-dur op. 17 Roberta Schumanna w świetle semiotyki egzystencjalnej, “Analiza dzieła muzycznego: Historia, theoria, praxis. II”, Wrocław 2012; D. Ferris Robert Schumann, composer of songs, “Music analysis” 32 (2), 2013; K. Muxfeldt Happy and sad: Robert Schumann’s art of ambiguity, in: Word, image, and song. II: Essays on musical voices, Rochester 2013; H. Mossburger Robert Schumann’s poetic paraphrases: Analytical implications, in: Ohne Worte: Vocality and instrumentality in 19th-century music, Leuven 2014; H. Mossburger „Inner voices” and „deep combinations”: Robert Schumann’s approach to Romantic polyphony, in: Ohne Worte: Vocality and instrumentality in 19th-century music, Leuven 2014; H. Krebs Sentences in the lieder of Robert Schumann: The relation to the text, in: Formal functions in perspective: Essays on musical form from Haydn to Adorno, Rochester 2015; H. Krebs The influence of Clara Schumann’s lieder on declamation in Robert Schumann’s late songs, “SMT-V: Videocast journal of the Society for Music Theory” 2, 2016, 10.30535/smtv.2.1 ; M. Tomaszewski „Miłość poety” Schumanna do słów Heinego: Zapis samotności, in: “Teoria muzyki: Studia, interpretacje, dokumentacje. Wydanie specjalne: Mieczysława Tomaszewskiego teksty różne”, Kraków 2016; A. Chwiłek „I’m devoting a great deal of attention to melody”. Melody in piano works of the first decade in the oeuvre of Robert Schumann, in: The lyric and the vocal element in instrumental music of the nineteenth century, Warsaw 2017; M. Heinemann Robert Schumann Dichterliebe: Analytische Miniaturen, Cologne 2017; J.M. Hellner Robert Schumann’s „Drei Romanzen” op. 28: An Entwicklungsroman, in: Making sense of music: Studies in musical semiotics, Louvain 2017; I. Müller Maskenspiel und Seelensprache: Zur Ästhetik von Heinrich Heines Buch der Lieder und Roberts Schumanns Vertonungen, Baden-Baden 2020; D. Cubero Blurred harmonies in Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms, “Intégral: The journal of applied musical thought” XXXV, 2022; C. Ruth Spirituality and the fugal topos in the secular dramatic works of Robert Schumann, in: Sacred and secular intersections in music of the long nineteenth century: Church, stage, and concert hall, Lanham 2022; B. Taylor Music, Subjectivity and Schumann, New York 2022.