Strauss, Richard Georg (EN)

Strauss Richard Georg, *11 June 1864 Munich, †8 September 1949 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, German composer and conductor. His father, Franz Joseph, was a French horn player. At the age of 4, Strauss began to learn the piano with A. Tombo, and composed his first piano pieces and songs two years later. In 1872, he began studying the violin with B. Walter and in 1875, he began composition studies under W. Meyer. From 1882, he played the violin in the amateur orchestra Wilde Gung’l, conducted by his father. In this period, Strauss started to give first public performances of his work in Munich (1881) and other cities (Dresden, Vienna, 1882), and his first composition was published (Festmarsch in E-flat major Op. 1, 1881). After graduating from the Ludwigsgymnasium in Munich, Strauss took a degree in humanities at the University of Munich, which he gave up after half a year; he went to Berlin, where he met, among others, H. von Bülow, then the director of the Meiningen Orchestra. Thanks to him, Strauss debuted as a conductor (1884) and became Bülow’s assistant (1885–86), gaining solid conducting knowledge. He also debuted as a pianist in 1885, performing Piano Concerto in C minor KV 491 by Mozart with his own cadences. In the spring of 1886, he travelled through Italy, which inspired him to compose the symphonic fantasy, Aus Italien. In 1886–89, he worked as third conductor of the Munich Hofoper. Strauss composed his first symphonic poems (Don Juan, Tod und Verklärung, Macbeth) and collections of songs (Op. 15, 17, 19, 22) in these years. He also met a singer Pauline de Ahna, whom he married in 1894. In the summer of 1888, Strauss worked as a musical assistant at performing Wagner’s works in Bayreuth, where he befriended Cosima Wagner; in October that year, he was appointed a Kapellmeister at the court in Weimar. Together with the local orchestra, he performed a symphonic poem Don Juan in 1889, the success of which allowed to include Strauss among the most outstanding German composers of his time. In Weimar, he was mainly responsible for conducting and preparing performances of, among others, Wagner’s works. He also performed in Berlin, Eisenach and Leipzig a few times. He had to recuperate from a serious lung disease he suffered in Greece and Egypt (winter 1892–93). In 1894 in Weimar, there was a world premiere of the opera Guntram conducted by Strauss, and in the summer of that year, he debuted as a conductor in Bayreuth (Tannhäuser); P. de Ahna took part in both these performances. From 1894, Strauss conducted the court opera in Munich and, at the same time, directed a series of concerts in Munich and Berlin (with the local philharmonic) and made concert tours to various European cities, including Paris and Brussels (November 1897). During these years, world premieres of a few symphonic poems took place, including Till Eulenspiegel (1895), Also sprach Zarathustra (1896) and Don Quixote (1898). In 1897, Strauss’s son was born, Franz Alexander. In November 1898, Strauss took up the position of first conductor at the court opera in Berlin. At that time, he also dealt with organisational issues – in 1901, he became president of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Musikverein and the editor of the book series Die Musik. His interest in copyright led to the establishment of the first trade union of composers. The first symphonic concerts devoted entirely to Strauss’s works took place in Vienna in 1901. A monographic festival of Strauss’s music took place in London in 1903; the same year, the composer received the honorary doctorate at Heidelberg University. During this time, he toured Europe with the Berlin Tonkünstler-Orchester, and in 1904, he went on tour to the United States with his wife. The success of the premiere of Salome (Dresden 1905), determined Strauss’s recognition as a leading German composer; other premieres in Germany and abroad quickly followed. In 1908, Strauss settled in Garmisch. The opera Elektra, composed there, gained slightly less fame but helped to consolidate the composer’s position. Strauss found a poet whose aesthetics was similar to his own concepts of artistic work and it was H. von Hofmannsthal, author of libretto for Elektra. Before World War I, two more operas written to Hofmannsthal’s librettos were premiered: Der Rosenkavalier (1911) and Ariadne auf Naxos (1912). From 1909, Strass’s Weeks (Strauss-Wochen) were organised in Germany, devoted to performances of his works. In 1910, Strauss became a director of the Berlin Hofoper and also conducted at the Vienna Hofoper. In 1914, he received an honorary degree from Oxford University and in 1917, he became a lecturer in the composition class at the Akademie der Künste in Berlin. After World War I, Strauss moved to Vienna. Together with F. Schalk, he took up the position of director at the Vienna State Opera, where he conducted several performances of works by, among others, Wagner, Mozart and his own. In the autumn of 1920, he toured South America with the Wiener Philharmoniker Orchestra, and in 1921, he gave concerts in the USA. In 1922, he conducted Mozart’s operas during the first Salzburg Festival, and a year later, he went on a concert tour to South America again. In 1924, on the occasion of Strauss’s 60^th birthday, numerous festivals and weeks (Strauss-Tage) were held, devoted to his music (e.g. in Vienna, Berlin, and Munich), and the composer was accorded numerous honours on this occasion. In the same year, his son Franz married Alice von Grab, who came from a Jewish family, which later, during the Third Reich, complicated the composer’s political situation. The already deteriorating relations with F. Schalk led to Strauss’s resignation from the position of director of the Vienna State Opera (1924), but Strauss remained connected with the musical life of Vienna, and from 1926, he conducted guest opera performances there again. The following Strauss-Wochen in Dresden, Leipzig, Vienna and Berlin (1926–28) were occasions for presenting the composer’s works, including the film Der Rosenkavalier with Strauss’s music and a new opera Die ägyptische Helena. After Hitler came to power in Germany, Strauss was active in all areas of his interest and was therefore perceived internationally as a supporter of National Socialism. In the summer of 1933, the composer replaced A. Toscanini at Bayreuth, who had boycotted the festival; that year, Strauss became head of the Reichsmusikkammer, the institution responsible for musical life in the Third Reich. The following year, on the occasion of the composer’s 70^th birthday, further Strauss-Wochen were held in Berlin, Vienna, Dresden and Munich. The staging of the comic opera Die schweigsame Frau in 1935, however, caused Strauss to come into conflict with the Nazi government – ​​the main reason for this was the Jewish origin of the librettist S. Zweig. Strauss then resigned from his position in the Reichsmusikkammer, but did not cease his activities aimed at legitimising fascist cultural policy: he composed several propaganda pieces (1934 – Olympische Hymne for the Berlin Olympics, 1939 – a waltz for the propaganda film München, 1940 – Festmusik for the Empire of Japan), and often performed as a conductor in Germany and Italy. Strauss’s almost exclusive scope of composition during the Third Reich and World War II was opera. The composer established contact with the librettist J. Gregor, who became the co-creator of three operatic works: Friedenstag, Daphne and Die Liebe der Danae. The latter opera, written for the Salzburg Festival in 1944, was not performed after Goebbels decided to close theatres in the face of total war. In 1942, Strauss’s last opera, Capriccio, was premiered, with the libretto created by conductor C. Krauss and with the composer’s participation. After World War II, Strauss moved to Switzerland, and in 1947, he became an Austrian citizen. That same year, he went on a concert tour to London, where he conducted performances of his compositions. In 1948, he was cleared of the charge of collaboration with the fascist regime, and in 1949, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Munich.

Strauss’s place in the history of music remains a subject of numerous discussions and disputes to this day, caused primarily by the composer’s involvement in the musical life of the Third Reich; his collaboration with the fascist regime resulted in a negative reception of his music after World War II. Another reason for disputes is the style of Strauss’s works, which shows the evolution of the compositional means and techniques only to a small extent. Strauss’s activity coincided with the years of fundamental changes in musical aesthetics, leading to the rise of the so-called New Music, to which the composer yielded only to a negligible extent, remaining faithful to his individual style of creation. His works composed in the 20^th century show features typical of the 19^th-century music, so they are aesthetically late and, for this reason, were often treated as a manifestation of anachronism or conservatism. This assessment was also influenced by Strauss’s lack of involvement in current events. One manifestation of this attitude was, among others, his opera Capriccio composed during World War II. The topic of the 18^th-century aesthetic discussions on opera in this work is an expression of escapism and conformism in the context of the growing genocide of the early 1940s. Strauss’s work, presenting late Romantic aesthetic tendencies, marks the final link in German Romantic music. He composed for almost 80 years; his mature artistic activity was marked by the composition of the symphonic poem Don Juan. Due to the fact that Strauss began to occupy the position of the most important German composer during his lifetime, researchers’ interest in his biography and work appeared relatively early. In Germany and the United States in the first half of the 20^th century, a dozen or so biographical and analytical works were published. The authors of these works, as well as later monographs, generally had direct contact with the artist, some, such as E. Krause, R. Specht and W. Schuh, were his collaborators or even friends; their biographical studies are in the nature of a direct account, and their reading shows an excellent knowledge of the composer’s entire creative legacy. Later research has allowed for a detailed description of Strauss’s work. Of primary importance are, above all, documentary works, mainly the catalogue of his works published by E. Mueller von Asow in the 1950s and 1960s (completed after his death by F. Trenner and A. Ott). This catalogue contains a detailed bibliography, quotes, opinions and fragments of reviews concerning individual compositions. The latest edition of the catalogue (1999) by F. Trenner introduces significant adjustments, referring to the genesis of many works but is devoid of review material. The Internationale Richard-StraussGesellschaft is responsible for coordinating scholarly activities concerning the composer’s life and work. In 1952–69, it published volumes of scholarly works on Strauss, and since the 1970s, it has published a cyclical scholarly journal that is an international forum for researchers dealing with the composer’s artistic activity and biography: until 2008 as the semi-annual Richard-Strauss-Blätter, since 2009 as the annual Richard Strauss-Jahrbuch. In addition, there are local institutions that deal with research on this subject, such as the Richard-StraussInstitut in Munich, established in 1982 (since 1999, it has been based in Garmisch-Partenkirchen). Since 1989, Garmisch-Partenkirchen has also hosted the annual RichardStrauss-Tage, a festival of Strauss music.

Style features

Strauss was inspired by the achievements of F. Liszt and R. Wagner, as he referred to them many times in his own works, statements and letters. These references are especially visible in treating music as a heteronomous category, in which the extra-musical sphere constitutes the essential aesthetic scope of musical creation. Strauss’s attitude is evidenced by the fact that the main body of his works consists of compositions with verbal text (operas, songs) or involving the introduction of a programmatic extra-musical reference (symphonic poems). From Liszt and Wagner, the composer also took primarily the type of harmony and sound colour, as well as the types of textural solutions, which he developed, creating his own musical language. The stylisations of classical music, often present in Strauss’s work, certainly have a different character. Mozart stylisations in Der Rosenkavalier and the classicising features of Ariadne auf Naxos are an expression of an aesthetic opposed to the innovative activities of A. Schönberg at that time. However, dance stylisations, mainly related to the circle of J. Strauss’s waltzes, testify to his interest in popular music and connection with the tradition of Viennese operetta. In terms of harmony and tonality, Strauss was a continuator of the line marked out by Wagner. The organisation of the sound material in his works consists of general respect for the principles of the major-minor system, however in an extremely expanded version, of the introduction of alterations, unrelated keys and bitonality. Altered chords, in which the composer willingly used dissonances (e.g. tritones), cause the tonal plan of the work to be obscured. Their use reveals considerable dramatic power, especially in situations when Strauss juxtaposed complex dissonant progressions based on alterations with diatonic sections. This type of contrast creates the impression of two musical languages, evoking different expressive spheres or suggesting opposing valuations (e.g. Ochs’s sphere confronted with the sphere of Octavian and Sophie in Act III of Der Rosenkavalier). The juxtaposition of unrelated keys and chords serves to carry out abrupt modulations, influencing the dramatisation of the work’s progression, and to mark situations of transition, change or transformation (e.g. the problem of the emperor’s petrification in Die Frau ohne Schatten or Dyl’s death in Till Eulenspiegel). Bitonal structures are used in turn in moments of dramatic entanglements and conflicts; in such sound progressions, Strauss approached the style of free atonality present in the works of A. Schoenberg. In terms of instrumentation, Strauss achieved the highest level of mastery. His scores demonstrate an excellent knowledge of the sound possibilities of all the orchestral groups, resulting from many years of conducting practice, which also enabled him to edit H. Berlioz’s treatise on instrumentation (1905). In the introduction preceding this edition, Strauss drew attention to Wagner’s achievements in instrumentation, such as the free use of the valve horn group and the virtuoso treatment of all the orchestral instruments. In his own compositional practice, Strauss meticulously developed orchestral parts, the performance of which required virtuoso skills. In his orchestral works, individual instruments are exposed thanks to the use of refined articulation techniques. The number of different sound qualities seems almost limitless – from the chambered sounds of a string quintet to the vibrating, powerful orchestral tutti. Particularly idiomatic is the type of sound colour in which long-sustained legato violin sounds in the highest register are confronted with fast progressions in the wind instruments. In order to differentiate the sound sequences, Strauss reached for the solo use of instruments, which sometimes resulted from the dramatic flow or programmatic objectives (e.g. the representation of the child figure by a solo oboe in Symphonia domestica), while for the purposes of musical illustration, he did not even shy away from introducing sound tools into the scores, imitating the sounds of nature (Windmaschine and Donnermaschine in Don Quixote and Eine Alpensinfonie). Lyrical vocal parts in Strauss’s works also have an original character, in which long rhythmic values ​​and legato articulation are preferred, with a clear predilection for high voices and the highest vocal tessitura. The singing technique necessary to perform Strauss’s works consists in the ability to combine opposing features: strong volume, typical of the Wagnerian vocal style, and delicate voice colour, reminiscent of Mozart. The composer made his vocal style dependent on the tempo of the verbal drama, which is why conflicts between singing and orchestra full of figuration and polyphony seemed difficult to avoid, which he considered to be an individual feature of his work (Erinnerungen an die ersten Aufführungen meiner Opern, 1942). The types of melodic lines introduced in Strauss’s compositions are strongly determined by the content scope of the vocal or programmatic works, while the method of operating the melody results from the Wagnerian technique of leitmotifs (Strauss spoke about creating his own melodies, among others, in a conversation with M. Marschalk, “Vossische Zeitung” from 15 October 1918, cf. Richard Strauss’s Betrachtungen und Erinnerungen, 1949). To present active male characters, the composer used melodics based on three-note movement, mainly in the ascending direction, with the use of rhythmic fragmentation or dotted rhythm (the hero’s themes in the symphonic poems Don Juan, Ein Heldenleben, the Agamemnon motif from Elektra). In turn, the characterisation of subtle female characters is achieved by using the movement of seconds in longer rhythmic values ​​and slower tempo (the parts of Arabella, Daphne or the Marshal’s wife from Der Rosenkavalier). The melody intended to depict both of these groups is diatonic in nature and often based on the progressive repetition of the initial motif model. Different types of melody are associated with grotesque and specific characters (Herod from Salome, Clytemnestra from Elektra, Baron Ochs from Der Rosenkavalier, the Nurse from Die Frau ohne Schatten, Till Eulenspiegel), which are depicted through motifs based on chromatic, tonally unclear courses, in fragmented movement and staccato articulation. Melodic shapes, in which Strauss stylises popular, folk, religious or dance music, are not directly related to the characterisation, and the function of this type of melodic progression is related to the musical imagery of a given setting. The idiom of Strauss’s music has undergone certain changes over the years, which allows it to be assigned to such different stylistic categories as late romanticism, expressionism, modernism, Art Nouveau or neoclassicism. In order to distinguish stylistic periods, it seems useful to base the periodisation on the criterion of musical genres dominant in a given period of Strauss’s work. This allows us to distinguish four stages in the composer’s artistic activity: 1. youthful period, 1870–85 – non-program instrumental works, 2. 1886–1904 – symphonic poems, 3. 1905–41 – operas, 4. 1942–49 – return to writing non-program instrumental works. Strauss’s achievements in the two middle periods and in the two musical genres associated with these periods have fundamental importance for the history of music; the youthful stage was a period when the composer was coming to his own creative style, while in his final period, Strauss took on genres that were outside the main trends of his compositional activity. The highlighted caesuras only indicate, in an approximate way, the composer’s interest in a given genre, because, for example, Strauss’s last programmatic instrumental work (Eine Alpensinfonie) was not completed until 1915, while the beginning of his operatic activity dates back to the 1890s. The genre of solo song, which appeared with varying intensity in all the distinguished periods, does not fit into the presented periodisation. Strauss often composed songs on an occasional basis, undertaken, for example, for joint performances with his wife, the singer P. S. de Ahna.

Musical genres

Symphonic poems. Strauss’s statements on programmatic music indicate the evolution of his views in this area, from the affirmation of programmaticity (letter to J.L. Bella from 1890) to the conviction of the uselessness of a programme (“Der Morgen,” 1907); the composer’s point of reference in this sphere of work were Liszt’s symphonic poems and Berlioz’s programme symphonies. From these creators, he adopted a twofold understanding of musical programmes – plot-oriented and ideological. In works with a plot character (Aus Italien, Don Juan, Macbeth, Till Eulenspiegel, Don Quixote, Ein Heldenleben, Symphonia domestica, Eine Alpensinfonie) the music takes on narrative features, and extra-musical semantic references evoke the character of the unfolding story. The possibility of interpreting such works in extra-musical categories results from the programmatic title, taken from well-known literary themes and cultural topoi, and is sometimes also constructed from clues included in the score, e.g. in Eine Alpensinfonie, the titles of individual sections of the works were introduced (Night, Sunrise, The Ascent, Entry into the Forest, Wandering by the Brook, At the Waterfall, etc.). The narrative aspect of the composition is also emphasised by expressive programmatic media in subjective and objective representation. For the characterisation of the subject, Strauss introduced such media of programme as the main motif or musical theme in the function of character representation (e.g. Dyl’s themes in Till Eulenspiegel), an instrument-attribute of the character (e.g. solo cello in Don Quixote as a representation of the title character, solo violin for the characterisation of the hero’s “life companion” in Ein Heldenleben), the selection of key in the programmatic function (e.g. the key of E-flat major, characterising the main lyrical subject of Ein Heldenleben or Eine Alpensinfonie). In turn, the sphere of object representation often takes on illustrative features, enabling the identification of details, circumstances and stages of the unfolding story (tremolo on the snare drum before Dyl’s execution in Till Eulenspiegel, the sound of the oboe imitating of the bleating of rams in Don Quixote or the harp glissando as a representation of a waterfall in Eine Alpensinfonie). The means used affect the expressiveness of the extra-musical quality and the clarity of the presentation of the plot sphere of the works. The programmatic ideological scope is only visible in two of Strauss’s symphonic poems (Also sprach Zarathustra, Tod und Verklärung), in which there are expressive references to Liszt’s programmatic approach, based on the principle of confrontation and opposition of existential qualities. The ideological scope of Also sprach Zarathustra is determined by the opposition between the sphere of nature and the sphere of spirit; the opposition of these qualities is visible in the tonal plane of the composition – the manifestations of nature (Sunrise and Dance Song) are maintained in the key of C major, while the tonal equivalent of the sphere of spirit becomes B major. The confrontation of these unrelated keys is manifested in the sound material of the fugue (the section Of Science and Learning), which contains progressions starting with the notes C and B, as well as in the ending of the piece, in which both keys are juxtaposed. In turn, the programmatic representation in the symphonic poem Tod und Verklärung combines the plot presentation of the hero’s illness and death with an eschatological vision of his liberation, the musical manifestation of which is the opposition of modes (C minor–C major). The form of Strauss’s symphonic poems cannot always be reduced to simple architectural models and often shows features of orchestral fantasy, e.g. in Also sprach Zarathustra, the structure is based on the juxtaposition of the introduction, which is an image of a sunrise, with eight further sections, endowed with programmatic titles, referring to Nietzsche’s treatise. The structural coherence of the works is influenced by the composer’s use of the leitmotif technique. In general, however, Strauss’s programmatic music contains a traceable a priori formal principle, which is sometimes specified by the subtitle introduced by the composer, as in the case of Don Quixote (“fantastic variations on a knightly theme”) and Till Eulenspiegel (“arranged in the form of a rondo”). The architectural form of other works (Don Juan, Tod und Verklärung) was clearly influenced by the model of the sonata allegro, while the term “symphony” in the titles of two works (Symphonia domestica and Eine Alpensinfonie) indicates the large size of these single-movement compositions.

Operas. Strauss’s operatic output is characterised by a mixture of various attitudes and aesthetic categories – from the post-Wagnerian concept of musical drama (Guntram, Feuersnot) and expressionist works of the avant-garde (Salome, Elektra), through the reinterpretation of romantic opera (Die Frau ohne Schatten) and fascination with classicism (Ariadne auf Naxos, Die ägyptische Helena, Daphne, Die Liebe der Danae) to bourgeois comedies (Der Rosenkavalier, Intermezzo, Arabella, Die schweigsame Frau, Capriccio). Strauss’s first operas (Guntram, Feuersnot) show the composer’s individual style only to a small extent, while their musical organisation (especially in Guntram) refers to the motific narrative typical of Wagner’s works. Neither of these operas became a permanent part of the repertoire, unlike Strauss’s next two works, the expressionist musical dramas Salome and Elektra. The pursuit of dramatic truth and the expressiveness of the psychological characterisation of the heroes found expression in the complex sound material and musical language of these works. The characteristics of the heroes and the dramatic situation is served by innovative harmony, going beyond the major-minor system (e.g. the ensemble parts of the Jews in Salome) and extremely varied sound colouring, related to the use of the possibilities of the extended orchestral apparatus and unconventionally used vocal voices (e.g. the scream in Elektra). Such means result from the drastic nature of the dramatic situations, in which scenes of abuse and murder are intertwined with a deepened psychoanalysis of the characters; the genesis of such solutions is related to the expressionist tendency to expose extreme emotional states and to the popularity of S. Freud’s theories. The high artistic value of Salome and Elektra is the result of the perfect interaction of music with the word and dramatic categories; Strauss, like Wagner, was aware of the importance and key role of the libretto, and was also convinced of the need to introduce myth as a central category of musical drama. A fruitful collaboration with the poet H. von Hofmannsthal begun while composing Elektra and led to the creation of several outstanding operatic works; the greatest achievement of both artists should be considered the opera Die Frau ohne Schatten, in which the content plot takes on almost Faustian features, while the music of stage events is characterised by emotional saturation resulting from the exploitation of the colourful possibilities of individual orchestra groups. After the expressionist musical dramas, Strauss began a period of searching for other artistic solutions and themes closer to bourgeois morality; this circle of works began with the opera Der Rosenkavalier, in which the genre term “musical comedy” meant focusing the recipient’s attention on the sphere of verbal and musical characterisation of exaggerated characters. In Der Rosenkavalier and subsequent works from this circle (Intermezzo, Arabella, Die schweigsame Frau, Capriccio), a strong realistic element is evident, and the problems raised concern social and family life. The change in the subject matter is also reflected in the selection of different sound solutions; the main method of narration is the discussions of the characters, which contrast with the monologue that dominated earlier operas. The conversations of the characters now concern social flirtation (Der Rosenkavalier, Arabella, Die schweigsame Frau), family life (Intermezzo) or art (Capriccio). The way in which the vocal parts are treated indicates the subordination of music to the word, so melodeclamation becomes the superior stylistic quality (“conversational opera”). The musical attractiveness of these operas was mainly determined by the orchestral parts, in which Strauss combined various musical styles. The multitude of stylistic references is most clearly presented in Der Rosenkavalier, since in the musical fabric of this opera one can notice, among others, references to Mozart’s style (the duet of Sophie and Octavian), Italian bel canto (Singer’s aria), the tradition of J. Strauss’s waltz and Viennese operetta (Ochs’s song). All these elements were integrated with Strauss’s individual style, although the variety of musical inspirations and references to the ranges of lower art (dance, operetta) may constitute the basis for interpreting these works as musical manifestations of Art Nouveau. A separate group of Strauss’s operas are compositions which themes refer to classical Greek myths, however, the way they are presented does not resemble the tragic tone of Elektra, but is connected either with the isolation of the pastoral category contained in the myth (Daphne), or with the ironic treatment of the myth (Ariadne auf Naxos, Die Liebe der Danae). Among these operas, Ariadne auf Naxos has achieved a special position, which – in its second version with a prologue (from 1916) – can be treated as the embodiment of Strauss’s operatic aesthetics. The confrontation of the prologue and the opera proper leads to the creation of a double discourse, in which the presented contents of the opera constitute a peculiar category of “theatre within a theatre”. The mixing of the ‘high’ world of Ariadne and the ‘low’ world of Zerbinetta, as well as the confrontation of the Composer’s character, romantic in terms of musical gesture, with the ironic representation of the bourgeois environment are evidence of a refined play with stage conventions and musical styles.

Solo songs were composed by Strauss throughout his life, and his song output is among the highest achievements in the genre of romantic song. A significant part of Strauss’s songs was written occasionally, often for specific performers (P.S. de Ahna, V. Ursuleac). The selection of texts for the songs testifies to the composer’s interest in both the poetry of outstanding German creators of the 18^th and 19^th centuries (J.W. Goethe, F. Schiller, L. Uhland, H. Heine, C. Brentano, F. Rückert), as well as in the lyricism of second-rate contemporary poets (K. Henckel, H. Gilm, A.F. Schack, O.J. Bierbaum). Most of Strauss’s songs are pieces for voice (usually high) and piano, but for specific performances the composer would arrange the piano part for the orchestra, often reaching back to a previously composed piece many years later (e.g. the song Zueignung from the collection Acht Gedichte aus “Letzte Blätter”, 1885, instrumentalised in 1940). Sometimes individual songs from a given collection were subjected to instrumentation and in performances with the composer’s participation, there were also individual songs combined from different collections. Strauss did not treat these song collections (publications with titles indicating only the number of pieces, e.g. FünfLieder) as cycles; only in reference to the satirical Krämerspiegel Op. 66 can we speak with certainty of a cyclical intention and the integrity of the piece. Strauss’s song style has many features in common with his operatic style. Lyricism of vocal parts, preference for long rhythmic values ​​and high voice position dominate. The piano part is often characterised by rhythmic fragmentation and complex texture, which in the orchestral setting provides an opportunity to introduce refined sound colours. It is probably for this reason that Strauss’s orchestral songs have gained the greatest popularity, both the arrangements of works for voice and piano (e.g. 3 instrumented songs from the collection Vier Lieder Op. 27: Ruhe, meine Seele, Cäcilie, Morgen) and the original songs with orchestra (Vier letzte Lieder). The mood evoked by Strauss’s songs remains in the sphere of romantic expression, which, especially in compositions written after World War I, is an expression of aesthetic backwardness.

Strauss reached for almost all musical genres but in many cases, this was connected with occasional commissions. Parergon zur Symphonia domestica and Panathenaenzug for piano for the left hand and orchestra were intended for the pianist P. Wittgenstein, who lost his right hand during World War I; Concerto No. 1 for horn and orchestra was written by the composer for his father, and the Oboe Concerto for the oboist J. de Lancie. The ballet Josephslegende was commissioned by Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes, and several compositions for wind orchestra are associated with the ensemble of Viennese city musicians. Of marginal importance in the context of Strauss’s creative legacy are non-operatic stage works (ballets, theatre and film music), usually written occasionally and not always completed. A specific circle is also marked by choral works, in which the composer used sophisticated technical means, intended for powerful performance ensembles – both unaccompanied (Zwei Gesänge Op. 34 for a 16-voice choir) and with the accompaniment of an orchestra (Wandrers Sturmlied Op. 14 for a 6-voice choir and orchestra). Sometimes, polyphonic vocal compositions had a social genesis and an occasional and humorous character, which was expressed in the random selection of texts – an extreme example is Utan svafvel och phosphor, which text Strauss took from an inscription on a Swedish matchbox. Among all these compositions, the most important seem to be works that refer to classical instrumental music genres, such as sonatas, chamber music or concertos. The creation of these works falls on two extreme periods in Strauss’s life – his youth and his late years. The youthful compositions only rarely show individual features of Strauss’s musical style, often being references to conventional 19^th-century solutions (Violin Concerto, Concerto No. 1 for horn and orchestra, Cello Sonata Op. 6). In the late works from the 1940s (Concerto No. 2 for horn and orchestra, Oboe Concerto, Metamorphosen, Duett-Concertino for clarinet, bassoon and string orchestra), elements of neoclassicism are present, manifesting themselves in such areas as a chamber-like performance set, motor rhythmic progression, or the inclusion of parodic and ironic musical elements.

Literature:

Documentation – R. Specht Vollständiges Verzeichnis der im Druck erschienenen Werke von Richard Strauss, Vienna 1910; E. Mueller von Asow Richard Strauss. Thematisches Verzeichnis, 3 volumes, vol. 3 completed and published by A. Ott and E Trenner, Vienna 1955–74; Richard-Strauss-Bibliographie, 2 volumes, vol. 1: 1882–1944, ed. O. Ortner and E Grasberger, Munich 1964, vol. 2: 1944–1964, ed. G. Brosche, Vienna 1973; Richard Strauss. Autographen in München und Wien. Verzeichnis, ed. G. Brosche and K. Dachs, Tutzing 1979; R. Tenschert Straussiana aus vier Jahrzehnten, Tutzing 1994; F. Trenner Richard Strauss. Werkverzeichnis, Munich 1993, Vienna 1999; M.-D. Schmid The Richard Strauss Companion, Westport 2003; Richard Strauss Handbuch, ed. W. Werbeck, Stuttgart 2014.

Richard Strauss et Romain Rolland. Correspondance, ed. G. Samazeuilh, Paris 1951; Richard Strauss – Hugo von Hofmannsthal. Briefwechsel, ed. W. Schuh, Zurich 1952, 1978; Hans von Bülow – Richard Strauss. Briefwechsel, ed. W. Schuh and F. Trenner, “RichardStrauss-Jahrbuch” 1954; Richard Strauss. Briefe an die Eltern 1882–1906, ed. W. Schuh, Zurich 1954; Richard Strauss und Joseph Gregor. Briefwechsel 1934–1949, ed. R. Tenschert, Salzburg 1955; Richard Strauss, Stefan Zweig. Briefwechsel, ed. W. Schuh, Frankfurt am Main 1957; Cosima Wagner-Richard Strauss. Ein Briefwechsel and Richard Strauss-Ludwig Thuille. Ein Briefwechsel, ed. F. Trenner, Tutzing 1978, 1980; Lieber Collega! Richard Strauss im Briefwechsel mit zeitgenössischen Komponisten und Dirigenten, ed. G. Strauss, Berlin 1996; Ch. Youmans Ten Letters from Alexander Ritter to Richard Strauss 1887–1894, « Richard-Strauss-Blätter» No. 35, 1996; G. Brosche Richard Strauss – Clemens Krauss. Briefwechsel, Tutzing 1997; Ihr aufrichtig Ergebener. Richard Strauss im Briefwechsel mit zeitgenössischen Komponisten und Dirigenten, ed. G. Strauss and M. Reger, Berlin 1998; Richard Strauss – Ernst von Schuch. Ein Briefwechsel, ed. G. Hanke Knaus, Berlin 1999; Richard Strauss – Karl Böhm. Briefwechsel, 1921–1949, ed. M. Steiger, Mainz 1999; Sie kannten Richard Strauss: Ein Genie in Nahaufnahme, ed. Ch. Wagner-Trenkwitz, Vienna 2013; Richard Strauss: Späte Aufzeichnungen, ed. M. Beyer, J. May, W. Werbeck, Mainz 2016; “Mit dir keine Oper zu lang…”: Hugo von Hoffmannstahl, Alfred Roller, Richard Strauss – Briefwechsel, ed. Ch. Mühlegger-Henhapel, U. Renner, Munich 2021

F. Busch Aus dem Leben eines Musikers, Zurich 1949; Richard Strauss. Betrachtungen und Erinnerungen, ed. W. Schuh, Zurich 1949, 1957; Richard Strauss. Dokumente seines Lebens und Schaffens, ed. F. Trenner, Munich 1954; R. Petzold Richard Strauss. Sein Leben in Bildern, Leipzig 1960; Richard Strauss. Rozmyślania i wspomnienia, “Muzyka w Prasie Zagranicznej” 1961 No. 2; K. Böhm Begegnung mit Richard Strauss, ed. F.E. Dostal, Vienna 1964; L. Kusche Richard Strauss im Kulturkarussell der Zeit 1864–1964, Munich 1964; W. Deppisch Richard Strauss in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten, Reinbek 1968; F. Trenner Die Skizzenbücher von Richard Strauss aus dem Richard-Strauss-Archiv in Garmisch, Tutzing 1977; Richard Strauss. Dokumente, ed. E. Krause, Leipzig 1980; Die Texte der Lieder von Richard Strauss. Kritische Ausgabe, ed. R. Schlotterer, Pfaffenhoffen 1988; Kritiken zu den Uraufführungen der Bühnenwerke von Richard Strauss, ed. F. Messmer, Pfaffenhoffen 1989; G. Brosche Richard Strauss und Wien, « Richard-Strauss-Blätter» No. 42, 1999; R. Schlötterer-Traimer Richard Strauss: Sein Leben und Werk im Spiegel der zeitgenössischen Karikatur, Mainz 2009; G. Lesnig Die Aufführungen der Opern von Richard Strauss im 20. Jahrhundert: Daten, Inszenierungen, Besetzungen, vol. 1–2, Tutzing 2008–10; Richard Strauss: Der Komponist und sein Werk – Überlieferung, Interpretation, Rezeption, ed. S. Bolz, A. Kech, H. Schick, Munich 2017; Richard Strauss und die Sächsische Staatskapelle, ed. W. Mende, H.-G. Ottenberg, Hildesheim 2019; Strauss on the Record, ed. O. Panagl, M.M. Werley, Vienna 2022.

Life and work – E. Newman Richard Strauss, London 1908; R. Specht Richard Strauss und sein Werk, 2 volumes, Leipzig 1921; H.J. Moser Richard Strauss. Leben und Werk, Kraków 1944; W. Brandl Richard Strauss. Leben und Werk, Wiesbaden 1949; E. Bücken Richard Strauss, Kevelaer 1949; E. Krause Richard Strauss. Gestalt und Werk, Leipzig 1955, 1980, Polish ed. Richard Strauss. Człowiek i dzieło, transl. K. Bula, Kraków 1983; W. Panofsky Richard Strauss. Partitur eines Lebens, Munich 1965; G.R. Marek Richard Strauss. The Life of a Non-Hero, New York 1967; A. Jefferson Richard Strauss, London 1975; Q. Principe Strauss, Milan 1989; F. Messmer Richard Strauss. Biographie eines Klangzauberers, Zurich 1994; M. Kennedy Richard Strauss, «Master Musicians», London 1976, New York 1996; V. Beci Der ewig Moderne. Richard Strauss, Düsseldorf 1998; M. Boyden Richard Strauss. Die Biographie, Vienna 1999; K. Wilhelm Richard Strauss persönlich. Eine Bildbiographie, Berlin 1999; M. Publig Richard Strauss. Bürger, Künstler, Rebell. Eine historische Annäherung, Graz 1999; Wer war Richard Strauss? Neunzehn Antworten, ed. H. Krellmann, Frankfurt am Main 1999; F. Trenner Richard Strauss: Chronik zu Leben und Werk, Vienna 2003; G. Brosche Richard Strauss: Werk und Leben, Vienna 2008; R. Holden Richard Strauss: A Musical Life, New Haven 2011; M. Heinemann Richard Strauss: Lebensgeschichte als Musiktheater, Cologne-Rheinkassel 2014; L. Lütteken Richard Strauss: Musik der Moderne, Stuttgart 2014; L. Lütteken Strauss, New York 2019.

A. Berger Richard Strauss als geistige Macht. Versuch eines philosophischen Verständnisses, Berlin 1964; S. Kisielewski Richard Strauss, in: Gwiazdozbiór muzyczny, vol. 1, Kraków 1958, 1982; Richard Strauss and his World, ed. B. Gilliam, Princeton 1992; Richard Strauss. New Perspectives on the Composer and his Work, ed. B. Gilliam, Durham 1992; T. Ashley Richard Strauss and 20^th-Century Composers, London 1999; B. Gilliam Richard Strauss: Magier der Töne – Eine Biographie, Munich 2014; D. Hurwitz Richard Strauss: An Owner’s Manual, Milwaukee 2014; Richard Strauss in Context, ed. M. Kristiansen, J.E. Jones, Cambridge 2020.

Th. Armstrong Strauss’s Tone-Poems, London 1931; E. Wachten Das psychotechnische Formproblem in den sinfonischen Dichtungen von Richard Strauss, Berlin 1933; S. Kisielewski Poematy symfoniczne Richarda Straussa, Kraków 1955; G. Krauklis Simfoniczeskije poemy Richarda Straussa, Moscow 1970; M. Kennedy Strauss. Tone Poems, London 1984; W. Werbeck Die Tondichtungen von Richard Strauss, Tutzing 1996; M. Hansen Richard Strauss: die Sinfonischen Dichtungen, Kassel 2003.

Reiss Dramat muzyczny Richarda Straussa, “Biblioteka Warszawska” vol. 3 book 3, 1911 and “Przegląd Muzyczny” 1911 No. 19; W. Schuh Kritiken und Essays, vol. 1: Über Opern von Richard Strauss, Zurich 1947; Richard Strauss Bühnenwerke, ed. E. Roth, London 1954; A. Natan Richard Strauss. Die Opern, Basel 1963; W. Mann Richard Strauss. A Critical Study of the Operas, London 1964; E. Wąsowska Funkcja dramaturgiczna języka muzycznego w „Salome” Richarda Straussa, “Muzyka” 1968 No. 3 and 4; A.A. Abert Richard Strauss. Die Opern. Einführung und Analyse, Hanover 1972; W. Winterhager Zur Struktur des Operndialogs. Komparative Analysen des musikdramatischen Werks von Richard Strauss, Frankfurt am Main 1984; M. Gmys Dwa oblicza muzycznego manieryzmu, “Monochord” 1995 No. 6–7; J. Bottenberg Shared Creation. Words and Music in the Hofmannsthal – Strauss Operas, Frankfurt am Main 1996; B. Banoun L’Opéra selon Richard Strauss. Un théâtre et son temps, Paris 2000; R.D. Golianek Muzyczna secesja. Opery Richarda Straussa, “Operomania” 2001/2002 No. 4 (Poznań); L. Kramer Opera and Modern Culture: Wagner and Strauss, Berkeley 2004; J. Liebscher Richard Strauss und das Musiktheater, Berlin 2005; L. Lütteken Richard Strauss: Die Opern – Ein musikalischer Werkführer, Munich 2013; Richard Strauss und die Oper, ed. Ch. Mühlegger-Henhapel, A. Steiner-Strauss, St. Pölten 2014; D. Ender Richard Strauss: Meister der Inszenierung, Vienna 2014; B. Gilliam Rounding Wagner’s Mountain: Richard Strauss and Modern German Opera, Cambridge 2014

A. Jefferson The Lieder of Richard Strauss, London 1971; U. Lienenlüke Lieder von Richard Strauss nach zeitgenössischer Lyrik, Regensburg 1976; A. Obere Richard Strauss – Vier letzte Lieder, in: Pieśń z orkiestrą lub zespołem kameralnym 1876–1976, «Zeszyty Naukowe Zespołu Analizy i Interpretacji Muzyki PWSM» No. 2, ed. K. Droba, L. Polony, M. Stachowski, K. Szwajgier, Kraków 1977; B.A. Peterson Ton und Wort. The Lieder of Richard Strauss, Ann Arbor 1979; A. Oberc Cytaty i autocytaty w cyklu pieśni „Krämerspiegel” op. 66 Richarda Straussa, in: Muzyka w muzyce, «Spotkania Muzyczne w Baranowie» vol. 2, ed. T. Małecka and L. Polony, Kraków 1980; Richard Strauss. “Rückert-Lieder” op. 46, «Muzyka i Liryka» book 1, ed. M. Tomaszewski, Kraków 1989 and Pieśni z orkiestrą Richarda Straussa, in: Muzyka, słowo, sens, commemorative book of M. Tomaszewski, ed. A. Oberc, Kraków 1994; Richard Strauss’ Complete Song Texts, ed. B. Glass, Mt. Morris 2004; Richard Strauss im europäischen Kontext, ed. J. May, Ch. Wolf, Tutzing 2011; The Cambridge Companion to Richard Strauss, ed. Ch. Youmans, Cambridge 2010; Ch. Youmans Mahler & Strauss: In Dialogue, Bloomington 2016.

Special issues – «Mitteilungen der Internationalen RichardStrauss-Gesellschaft» No. 1–43, Berlin 1952–69; “Richard Strauss-Jahrbuch,” ed. W. Schuh, 1954, 1959/60 (Bonn); « Richard-Strauss-Blätter» (biyearly), ed. Internationale Richard-Strauss-Gesellschaft, No. 1–12, Vienna 1971–78, later new series Nos 1–60, Vienna 1979–2008, and from 2009 again as «Richard Strauss-Jahrbuch» (yearly).