Jommelli, Niccoló (EN)

Jommelli, Jomelli, Jomella, Jomela, Jomelo, Jumella, Jumeli, Niccoló, *10 September 1714 Aversa (province Caserta), †25 August 1774 Naples, Italian composer. He was the son of a wealthy merchant. He began his musical studies early in the cathedral choir of his native city. From 1725, he studied in Naples at the Conservatorio di Sant’Onofrio under I. Prota and F. Fea, and from 1728 at the Conservatorio della Pieta dei Turchini, where his teachers were N. Fago, G. Sarcuni and A. Basso. Thanks to the support of the Marquis G.B. del Vasto, in the spring of 1737, Jommelli staged his first stage work, the opera buffa L’errore amoroso, in Naples (Teatro Nuovo), and then in the same genre Odoardo. The performance in Rome (Teatro Argentina) of the opera seria Ricimero, rè de’Goti in 1740 brought Jommelli public recognition. Ch. de Brossesa noticed an outstanding talent in the novice artist. P.L. Ghezzi, a famous caricaturist, wrote about Ricimero, that it had “wonderful music,” and about Astianatte that it was “exceptional music, which brought Jommelli recognition throughout Rome.” In the latter, V. Rocchetti, a member of the royal band of Augustus III, sang. In the spring of 1741, Jommelli went to Bologna, where he presented the opera Ezio. Thanks to the preserved correspondence between Count Pepoli and Farinelli, who was staying in Madrid, we know that Jommelli’s music became the object of interest of the famous castrato. For several months, the composer also deepened his musical knowledge with G.B. Martini. Although he did not value his talent highly, he emphasised that he had benefited greatly from studying with the famous teacher. The friendship between the artists lasted for many years, as evidenced by the preserved correspondence. On 8 June 1741, Jommelli became a member of the Accademia Filarmonica in Bologna. In 1741–43, he wrote operas for the theatres of Venice, Turin, Bologna, Rome and Padua and composed religious works, among which the oratorios Isacco figura del Redentore and La Betulia liberata gained particular popularity. In 1743–47, thanks to the recommendation of J.A. Hasse, he served as music director at the Ospedale degli Incurabili in Venice. Among the works written for this institution, the psalm Laudate pueri and the oratorio Gioas and Juda proditor stood out. In 1747, the first version of his Didone abbandonata was performed at the Teatro Argentina in Rome (he would return to Metastasio’s libretto twice more, in 1750 and 1763). Jommelli’s position in the world of music was established not only by the aforementioned operas and oratorios, but also by the music commissioned in 1747 for the wedding of the Dauphin of France to Maria Josepha of Austria. From then on, Jommelli was referred to in sources as “celebre” or “virtuoso.” During this time, he also composed further operas for Ferrara, Bologna, Lucca, Rome, Venice and Naples. In 1748, he was probably active in Naples, where the premieres of the second version of the opera Ezio and L’amore in maschera took place. In the spring of the following year, he was in Parma (performing Demetrio), and in the middle of April, he met Padre Martini in Bologna. In the late 1740s, Cardinal Henry Edward Stuart became Jommelli’s patron (the composer’s contact with the cardinal was first documented in sources in 1749, but it is possible that the young Stuart, who liked music and performed it as an amateur, was perfectly familiar with Jommelli’s earliest compositions). In 1749, he dedicated La Passione di Gesù Cristo to him; in the same year, he also created the famous intermezzo Don Trastullo, a satire on the serious style in opera music. At the end of April 1749, thanks to the protection of the influential Cardinal A. Albani, he was engaged to the Cappella Giulia in the Vatican, but he was not approved for the position of maestro coadiutore of the papal chapel. From the unpublished correspondence of G. Chiti (the bandmaster in the basilica of S. Giovanni in Laterano) with Padre Martini, it appears that Roman musicians opposed this, accusing Jommelli of insufficient knowledge of the church style. Cardinal Albani then obtained for the composer an invitation to the imperial court in Vienna and a nomination as a member of the Accademia di Santa Cecilia in Rome. On his way to Austria, the composer visited Martini again in Bologna. Jommelli stayed in Vienna from July 1749 until the end of the year – apart from a short stay in Venice in the autumn (performance of the 3^rd version of Ciro riconosciuto) – and, on imperial commission, composed two operas: Achille in Sciro for the birthday of the Dowager Empress Elizabeth Christina, wife of Charles VI, and the 2^nd version of Didone abbandonata. Both works were successful. According to P. Metastasio, Achille in Sciro “far exceeded the great hopes” placed in the composer, and Didone abbandonata “rightly astonished and charmed the court. It is full of charm, novelty, harmony and, above all, expression.” Jommelli also took part in the preparation of pasticcia, such as Armida placata (October 1750), and performed the music during private music-making in the apartments of Empress Maria Theresa. During his stay in Vienna, Jommelli had the opportunity to get to know a musical tradition that was new to him and such composers as G.Ch. Wagenseil, one of the main representatives of the Old Viennese school, and personal contact with Metastasio gave him – according to his assurances – more than studying with any other composer. Metastasio gave Jommelli valuable advice on the musical setting of poetic texts. Until the end of his life, the composer would revere the figure and texts of Metastasio, even when, as a result of the change in musical style, he or the librettists working with him were forced to make significant modifications to them. In total, with breaks related to his returns to Italy, Jommelli spent a year and a half in Vienna. At the beginning of 1750, Jommelli returned to Rome, taking up duties at the Cappella Giulia. In March 1750, he was appointed papal virtuoso, and at the end of April, he received the coveted nomination for the position of maestro coadiutore of the papal chapel. At the end of 1750, he briefly went to Vienna, where operas with his music were performed. In 1751, he composed eight stage works for theatres in Rome, Bologna, Palermo, Venice and Spoleto, and eight more in 1753 for Rome, Stuttgart, Milan, Piacenza and Turin. The years 1750–53 also saw the creation of a significant portion of his church compositions, written for the papal chapel, as well as for the Collegio Nazareno and Collegio Capranica in Rome. In 1753, he became a member of the literary Accademia dell’Arcadia, receiving the name Anfione Eteoclide, which means that he could also boast literary talent since members of the Academy were required to be able to improvise poetry. Jommelli’s operatic work at the imperial court made his name famous beyond Italy’s borders; in 1751, the King of Portugal began efforts to recruit the composer to his court, and in 1753, Jommelli received a proposal from the Elector Charles Theodore of Mannheim and Prince Charles Eugene of Stuttgart. Despite his best efforts, Jommelli failed to gain recognition for his church compositions in Rome, so he accepted an invitation from the Duke of Württemberg, who had already staged the operas Ezio and Didone abbandonata in his theatre in 1751, and commissioned Fetonte from the composer for the 1753 carnival. At the beginning of that year, the Duke was in Italy, met Jommelli personally, and commissioned another opera, La clemenza di Tito. In 1753, his opera buffa Il parataio (a reworking of L’uccellatrice), performed by an Italian theatre troupe in Paris, included the famous “querelle des bouffons.”

Jommelli arrived in Stuttgart in August 1753 with a group of Italian singers and instrumentalists; on 21 November 1753, he received a profitable contract, and on 1 January 1754 an official nomination for the position of Musikdirektor und Ober-Kapellmeister of the Württemberg court. In Stuttgart, Jommelli found ideal conditions for the development and implementation of his operatic concepts, consistent with the prince’s preferences. Thanks to the patronage of Charles Eugen and the activity of his artists, the Württemberg court became an outstanding centre of music and ballet in the 1750s and 1760s and took a permanent place in history. Karol Eugene, a lover of music (also an amateur musician, a student of C.Ph.E. Bach) and theatre, well-versed in the latest trends in Italian and French art, left all financial resources and control over the entire artistic ensemble at Jommelli’s disposal, reserving for himself only the right to choose the libretto and decide on the form of the composition. Jommelli directed a large opera seria ensemble, and from 1766 also the opera buffa troupe and the orchestra, which he increased from 25 members (in 1755) to 47 (in 1767), and which under his baton became one of the best ensembles in Europe (among the violinists were P. Nardini, A. Lolli and F.J. Deller). Jommelli also collaborated with an excellent ballet ensemble headed by J.G. Noverre. Jommelli’s duties included looking after both secular and church music (in the Catholic and Protestant rites), but his most important task was composing operas, mainly for the prince’s birthday (11 February), and initially also for the princess’s birthday (30 August). They were usually performed in the Stuttgart Opernhaus and after 1764 in the new theatre in Ludwigsburg, where the court had moved. Jommelli’s contract provided for trips to Italy every three years, and the composer took advantage of this opportunity in 1754, 1757, 1762, and 1767. During his 16 years at the Württemberg court, Jommelli composed 42 stage works (including 8 for Italian theatres): 26 opera seria and 16 of other types, such as opera buffa, intermezza, serenata, pastorale, etc. It was then that – according to some researchers (e.g. H. Abert) – Jommelli’s most outstanding works were created: L’Olimpiade, Didone abbandonata (3^rd version), Demofoonte (3^rd version), Vologeso, and Fetonte (2^nd version). Around 1766, Jommelli began working with the new court poet – Martinelli, who wrote two libretti for comic operas for him, La critica and Il matrimonio per concorso.

The extravagant lifestyle of the court of Charles Eugene brought the small country of Württemberg to the brink of bankruptcy; in 1767 the prince began to dismiss expensive foreign artists and replace them with local forces. In this precarious situation, Jommelli established contact with the court of Joseph I in Lisbon in 1768. Due to the serious illness of Jommelli’s wife, having obtained leave from the court of Württemberg, he left for Italy in March 1769, settling first in his native Aversa, and after his wife’s death (July 1769) in Naples. As a result of intrigues at the court of Württemberg, he was deprived of his pension, which caused the composer to break off relations with Charles Eugene. Jommelli now received a permanent stipend from the Portuguese court in exchange for copies of earlier works sent to Lisbon and for new church and theatre works. He also resumed his cooperation with the Teatro San Carlo, where in 1770 Armida abbandonata was performed, warmly received by the audience; the main roles were played by excellent singers Giuseppe Aprile (Rinaldo) and Anna De Amicis (Armida). W.A. Mozart, present at one of the rehearsals of this opera, admitted that he liked it, because it was well written, even beautiful, but too sophisticated and old-fashioned for a theatrical work (letters from 29 May and 5 June 1770). In turn, the first informal biographer of the composer, Saverio Maffei, wrote that “the music was incomparable, it amazed and shocked everyone, it attracted both those who knew little about music and connoisseurs.” Jommelli’s next works for the Teatro San Carlo – Demofoonte (4^th version, 1770) and Ifigenia in Tauride (1771) – were met with complete incomprehension by the Neapolitan audience (according to Ch. Burney). At the beginning of 1771, the composer was in Rome, where he staged L’amante cacciatore and Achille in Sciro (2^nd version). In August, Jommelli suffered an attack of apoplexy, as a result of which he was partially paralysed. After regaining the use of his hands, he wrote the serenata Cerere placata, performed in one of the palaces in Naples (1772) and the opera seria Il trionfo di Clelia (1774), which was commissioned by the Portuguese court. Jommelli’s last composition for Naples was Miserere to an Italian psalm text by Mattei, performed successfully during Holy Week in 1774. The composer died soon after a second attack of apoplexy; he was buried in the church of S. Agostino alla Zeccha in Naples. During the solemn exequies (11 November 1774), numerous musicians and singers performed music written by N. Sabatini, paying tribute to a great artist and a beloved man.

His contemporaries often emphasised Jommelli’s gentle nature, his charming way of being, his excellent manners and his lack of envy for the successes of others. He had an extraordinary musical memory and a great facility for composing. He also had a poetic talent, being the author of several skilful poems (one of which was printed in Rome). He was a very rich, absorbent and open personality. His extensive interests and bibliophilic passion are evidenced by the catalogue of the collection of books left by Jommelli in Stuttgart, which included literary works, as well as philosophical, travel, historical, political, religious and other works.

Jommelli is one of the most outstanding creators of Italian opera seria of the 18^th c., a representative of the Neapolitan school, and at the same time one of the main – alongside T. Traetta and Ch.W. Gluck – reformers of the traditional style of this school. He also belongs – together with composers of the Mannheim and Old Viennese schools – to the most important representatives of the pre-classical orchestral style, which Jommelli developed in the context of opera since pure instrumental composition was marginal to his interests.

Many authorities of the time considered Jommelli a creator of everlasting fame, but history treated his works harshly, removing them almost entirely from the musical repertoire only a few years after the composer’s death. Ch.F.D. Schubart, an enthusiast of Jommelli’s talent, considered him – with a great deal of romantic exaltation – one of the greatest geniuses and predicted that “he will remain an eternally living figure in the history of music, and students of music will study his scores just as painters and architects study the art of antiquity.” Jommelli’s scores have not lost their value to this day, but opera seria, a genre of which Jommelli was a master, quickly became a relic of the past, forgotten by subsequent generations of listeners.

Jommelli’s work is divided into three periods clearly related to the stages of his life path: 1. 1737–53 – activity in Italy and for a short time in Vienna, 2. 1753–69 – at the Württemberg court, 3. 1769–74 – again in Italy. In his operatic work, Jommelli started from the style of such Neapolitan creators as G.B. Pergolesi, L. Vinci and L. Leo, and he also admitted to the influence of J.A. Hasse, whose works allowed him to understand the essence of musical dramaturgy. Collaborating in the 1940s with theatres in Bologna, Venice, Rome, Milan and Vienna, Jommelli had the opportunity to assimilate other stylistic trends. During his studies with Padre Martini, he learned the secrets of Palestrina counterpoint and developed this knowledge in works written primarily for the papal chapel in Rome. He also created and conducted works for the Eternal City, such as those presented in 1750 by an ensemble of 200 people (vocalists and instrumentalists together), using 11 organs. For the use of the Venetian Ospedale degli Incurabili and its female performers, he composed representative pieces, written with panache, for mixed voices, but also didactic compositions mainly for 1 voice, strings and basso continuo. In Milan, he encountered the symphonic style of G.B. Sammartini, in Vienna, with the local operatic tradition, different from the Italian one. Jommelli’s early operas follow the convention of Metastasio’s dramaturgy (with the action developed in secco recitatives, reflections and feelings expressed in virtuoso da capo arias, accompanied recitatives introduced at moments of particular dramatic tension, small ensembles – usually duets – placed at the end of acts and a chorus of soloists in the opera’s finale), and the music, subordinated in general principles to the style of the Neapolitan school, is characterised by the elegance and charm of the melodic line, transparent orchestral accompaniment and slow harmonic rhythm. However, the basic features of Jommelli’s mature style and his later reforming efforts are already visible in these works. Ch. de Brosses drew attention to the richness of harmony and the – in his opinion – unmatched in dramatic expression – accompanied recitatives, appearing in Ricimero, rè de’Goti (1740). In Merope, he proposed combining Acts I and II by means of chorus, accompanied recitative, ballet and pantomime. In turn, in Astianatte and Merope (1741) the composer used the then innovative (although already used in 1727 by Vinci) effect of crescendo, achieved by gradation of dynamics from piano to fortissimo (piano – poco forte – più forte – forte assai). Jommelli used the term crescendo in 1747 in Didone abbandonata, and crescendo il forte in 1749 in Artaserse, so he conducted his dynamic experiments earlier and independently of the composers of the Mannheim school.

Jommelli also significantly enriched the role of the orchestra in opera, and Artaserse (1749) was met with criticism in Rome for this very reason. Jommelli’s orchestral style was already far removed from Italian practice and the taste of the Italian audience. His operatic sinfonias – with second themes in the dominant key, sharp dynamic contrasts, abandonment of repetition signs in part 1, and contrasting sections performed by pairs of instruments – exerted a significant influence in the early 1750s on composers of instrumental music in Vienna, Paris, and Mannheim. K. Dittersdorf claimed that Jommelli’s success in the Viennese musical environment was due not so much to his operas, but to his sinfonias. The accompanied recitatives, the only elements that Jommelli retained from earlier works in his subsequent musical versions of the same libretto, stood out for their particular deepening of dramatic expression and the aura of ancient tragedy. The composer achieved an extraordinary dramatic effect in Attilio Regolo (1753), ending the opera with an accompanied recitative. Senesino, performing this scene in London (1754), encored it every evening, which was – according to Burney – an exceptional phenomenon in the operatic practice of that time. In the operas and pasticcia prepared for Vienna, Jommelli reached for the local operatic tradition, introducing independent instrumental sections (Ezio, Catone in Utica), larger ensembles (trios, quartets) and an expanded chorus (the finale of Achille in Sciro). The originality of Jommelli’s style was aptly characterised by Metastasio, who after the premiere of the opera Didone abbandonata (1749) wrote in one of his letters: “This is an opera full of charm, novelty, harmony and above all expression. Everything in it speaks, including the violins and double basses. I have not heard anything in this genre that has convinced me more.” After his return to Italy in 1750, Jommelli abandoned choruses and autonomous instrumental sections in the operas he wrote over the next few years, instead coming under the overwhelming influence of the church style, which he worked on intensively and from which – as he himself admitted – he was unable to free himself.

Starting from the conventional model of the traditional Neapolitan opera seria, Jommelli had reached the stage of work developed both dramatically and musically by the end of his first creative period. This was probably the reason for the proposal from Prince Charles Eugen. The Prince was a lover of French opera with its choruses, ensembles, ballets, programmed instrumental sections and sumptuous, rich staging. In deciding on the form of the works written for him, Charles Eugen encouraged Jommelli to reach for French models. Jommelli made this turn in collaboration with the librettist M. Verazi in two operas: Pelope (1755) and Enea nel Lazio (1755). In Pelope (seven years before Gluck’s Orfeo ed Euridice), Jommelli departed from the schematic sequence of recitative and aria, introducing complexes of dramatic scenes, composed of both types of recitative, arias, instrumental sections and choruses, the arrangement of which was determined by the development of the action. In Enea nel Lazio, French influence was evident in the use of extensively developed choruses and ensembles of an exceptionally dramatic character. In subsequent operas – written mainly to Metastasio’s texts – Jommelli used the achievements obtained in both works, but this required modification of the libretto. Jommelli, who was endowed by nature with a dramatic talent, subjected Metastasio’s texts to intelligent adaptations. In order to thicken the action and extract the maximum dramatic effect, Jommelli removed significant parts of the tiresome secco recitative, gave up unnecessary arias, introduced prologues (following the French model), and additional ensemble and choral parts. Unlike Hasse, who faithfully implemented Metastasio’s intentions, Jommelli became the co-creator of the drama. He treated the opera as an integral work, the result of cooperation between artists of different professions. Schubart emphasised this, writing that Jommelli very precisely combined in the performance the results of his work with the achievements of the machinist, set designer and ballet master into “a complete unity that moved the heart and soul of even the coldest listener.” J.G. Vogler and S. Mattei also noticed that Jommelli’s operatic music performed outside the theatre, without decorations and costumes, lost its brilliance and power of impact.

To emphasise the drama and increase the expression of the work, Jommelli also used purely musical means. He entrusted the main role in this task to the orchestra. Jommelli’s orchestra goes far beyond the role of accompaniment assigned to it by Italian operatic tradition and “tells” the events in detail, deepens the psychological expression and enhances the dramatic effects. Vogler stated that Jommelli “spoke without words.” The instrumentation shows innovative features; the cello and viola often become independent of the bass part; the viola sometimes even receives a melodic role. Basso continuo is not limited to emphasising the rhythmic pulse and filling the harmony but also takes part in motivic work, figurations, and imitations. The violins not only strengthen the vocal voice in unison, thirds or sixths, but also dialogue with the voice, create a sound background, and emphasise the mood. Wind instruments – flutes, oboes, horns – occasionally have solo parts. Among the composer’s discoveries, Vogler counted – apart from the crescendo and decrescendo effects – the use of staccato in bass instruments, which gave the impression of an orchestral pedal. Another element intensifying the expression of the work was harmony in Jommelli. Beloselsky considered Jommelli to be the “deepest and greatest” composer in this respect. Bold and innovative modulations to distant keys and chromatisation of the melodic line are the means most often used to achieve pathos and heighten expression. When choosing the key in arias, Jommelli relied on the traditional theory of affects, so he expressed negative situations and emotional states with flat keys, and positive ones with sharp keys.

Jommelli mainly implemented his orchestral and harmonic experiments in accompanied recitatives, which in time became the climaxes of his scenes. Accompagnati were intended for the main characters and expressed the internal contradictions and conflicts of the characters. Jommelli’s earlier operas were already distinguished by more accompanied recitatives than those of other composers (6 each in Cajo Mario 1746 and Eumene and Didone abbandonata 1747), but in the Stuttgart period they appear even more often: in L’Olimpiade (1761), there are 8 of them, in Semiramide riconosciuta (1762) – 9, in Didone abbandonata (1763) – as many as 21, in Demofoonte (1764) – 11. In arias, Jommelli rarely used the da capo form, exploiting the various possibilities of shaping the structure offered by the aria dal segno and the simple or extended ABA form. The composer used this type of formation for texts expressing great passions and in so-called allegorical arias, where the protagonist’s feelings are compared with images of nature. Jommelli also introduced recomposed arias and – mostly for secondary characters – various short, one- or two-part forms of cavatine (A, AB, ABA 1B 1), which did not stop the action for a long time. A characteristic feature of some arias is the introduction of a recitative, declamatory type of melody (at the beginning of the aria or in its B part), interrupted by pauses, exclamations, orchestral interjections, thanks to which the melodic line becomes torn, nervous, dramatic. Sometimes the composer connects the aria with the preceding recitative through common motific material. Duets – reserved for the main characters – usually express tender feelings, inspiring a beautiful, lyrical melody. The most frequently used form in them is da capo (with a written repetition of the A part), dal segno and a shortened rondo (ABA 1C). In larger ensembles, such as trios and quartets, the overcomposed form dominates, in which the course of action determines changes in key, tempo, meter, texture, and instrumentation. The choirs play a triple role in Jommelli: they comment on the events, provide accompaniment to the dance (a feature of French music), or take part in the action. The instrumental sections within the opera are usually marches and programmatic sinfonias. Jommelli left the music for the ballet scenes to be written by specialized ballet composers – F.J. Deller and J.J. Rudolph. The introductory sinfonias are often linked in their character to the mood of the entire work, or at least to its opening scene. Schubart wrote in this regard that they were “the germs in which the entire opera is contained.” The innovations introduced by Jommelli in operas for the Württemberg court aroused concern in Metastasio, who followed the activities of his once favourite composer from Vienna (in 1750, he considered him the “best master” in the setting of poetic texts) and, in a letter to Jommelli from 1765, warned him against giving too much importance to the orchestra and underestimating the vocal voice. Metastasio’s criticism touched on another dispute, noticeable in the mid-18^th century, between the Italian and German styles. The poet believed that the German style required knowledge that could be acquired as a result of studies and compositional practice. He called such a creator “gran maestro” (a great master). However, he called Jommelli “potentissimo mago” (a powerful wizard), noting that the construction of the vocal part that was characteristic of him could not be simply learned. Using the terms mentioned above, he pointed out to Jommelli that his music had become too learned and too Germanic as a result of his stay in Stuttgart.

The crowning achievement and synthesis of Jommelli’s operatic reforms was Fetonte (1768). The three-part introductory sinfonia is closely linked to the opera. The vocal-instrumental middle part of the sinfonia contains a vocal solo, a choir and a ballet and constitutes the opera’s first scene, while the instrumental part 3 has a programmatic character and illustrates the further course of events. The authors entrusted a significant role to the choirs (four appearances in Act 1 and two in Act 3) and ballets (they appear six times in Act 1, and the ballet also opens Act 3). The arias, which in Act 1 are relatively numerous (seven) and widely developed in three-part forms (Fetonte’s aria Le mie smanie is an aria dal segno with part A in the form of a sonata allegro), appear less frequently in the further course of the opera as the tension increases (in Act 2 – four times, and in Act 3 only three times), are smaller in size and have a simplified structure (most often the form AA 1 and AB). The main burden, however, rests on the ensembles included in large stage complexes. The finale of Act 2 is a succession of a quartet, duet, aria, secco recitative, trio, accompanied recitative and duet. The climax of the opera is its finale – made up of accompanied recitative, chorus, trio and chorus – in which the tragic fate of the two main characters of the drama, Fetonte and his mother Climene, is fulfilled. Jommelli makes abundant use of dynamic contrasts, frequent crescendos and decrescendos. The vocal parts of the trio are interrupted by instrumental sections “describing” the rapid course of events. The dramatic solo performances of Climene, devoid of orchestral accompaniment, constitute an even greater contrast. Fast scale progressions and the violin’s tremolo vividly depict the element of fire all-encompassing the sky and the earth. The descending melodic figure of the violin illustrates Fetonte’s fatal fall into the sea and returns in the scene of his mother’s suicide. The musical and dramatic tension of the opera is supported by rich staging and spectacular scenography. The action takes place in seven different sets: the picturesque undersea kingdom of Thetis, the underground royal tombs, the land of the Sun and three earthly scenes. The opera requires the participation of – in addition to the seven soloists – numerous choristers (priests, Moors, water deities), dancers (warriors, Moors, allegorical figures, gods, tritons, Nereids, etc.), as well as extras (warriors, court officials, pages, people). In the premiere performance, 436 extras appeared on stage, including 341 soldiers, 86 on horses (the ballet at the end of Act 1 includes horse stunts). Schubart, who was present at the premiere, wrote about it: “The spirit of the music was great, reaching to the heavens (…). The dance, the scenery, the machinery, everything was in the boldest, newest, best style.” Despite this, it is worth noting that Jommelli preferred librettos with historical themes to fantasy ones, among which he included Fetonte.

Vologeso (1766) and Fetonte, the last opera seria written by Jommelli for the Württemberg court, begin the composer’s last period of creativity. After returning to Italy, Jommelli continued to use his earlier achievements, and even deepened them but, at the same time, simplified the musical language, adapting to local tradition, performance possibilities and audience expectations. However, this did not guarantee him success. During his 16-year stay in Germany, Jommelli moved far from the taste of his compatriots (he became, in their opinion, “too learned” and “too German”), who in turn changed their preferences during this time, leaning towards opera buffa, and in the field of opera seria, giving primacy to a new generation of composers who – like N. Piccinni, G. Paisiello and G.B. Lampugnani – focused not on drama but on music. The distinctiveness and anachronism of Jommelli on the Italian operatic stage were aptly noticed by the young Mozart when he assessed Armida abbandonata (1770) as too sophisticated and old-fashioned a work. At a time when the style of music was generally tending towards simplification, Jommelli stuck to his preferences developed in the exclusive, refined atmosphere of the absolutist court, surprising listeners with his “learnedness” and the complexity of the means used. His contemporaries – especially Italians – believed that his music was difficult for both performers and audiences, that it required educated recipients and was intended for connoisseurs. Beloselsky poetically – but also maliciously – compared Jommelli’s operas to the Cretan labyrinth and stated that one had to be Theseus and have Ariadne with him to find the exit. According to Mattei, Jommelli did this consciously, wanting to stand out from other creators, with a style entirely his own. Although the composer’s last operas were not appreciated at the time, in the opinion of today’s researchers (M. McClymonds) they are the works of a mature master, characterised by the intensity of emotional expression, a wealth of harmonic, rhythmic, motivic and textural effects, while simplifying the orchestral language.

Jommelli began his reform earlier than Traetta and Gluck, in the mid-1750s. Regardless of Gluck, he implemented many of his postulates announced in 1769 in the famous preface to Alceste. Unlike Gluck, however, Jommelli did not violate the foundation of the operatic work, i.e. the text. His reform was a musical reform, a search for new musical possibilities within the framework of traditional dramaturgy. After all, Jommelli wrote many of his works to Metastasio’s librettos, and although he modified these texts, he never rejected their conventions, finding inspiration in them and returning to the same themes several times (out of the 15 librettos developed by Jommelli, two, three, and even four times, as many as ten were written by Metastasio).

In the shadow of the reform operas, Jommelli’s less numerous and less important comedy output remains. The opera buffa (7), opera semiseria (3) and intermezzi (6) testify to the composer’s talent and mastery of the craft also in this genre, but they do not stand out in any particular way from similar productions by other composers.

Jommelli’s enormous output in the field of church music was created mainly before the composer left for Stuttgart. Oratorios (usually 2-act, sometimes 1-act) and cantatas are similar in style and form to his early operas. Masses and liturgical music – for soloists and choir, most often with accompaniment by string ensemble and organ – usually have a sectional structure, and are maintained in concertato style, in mixed homophonic and polyphonic texture. In later works, the sectional structure disappears in favour of larger parts combining contrasting effects and different methods of musical development. Burney considered Jommelli a master of the church style, especially valuing the last Miserere (1774). Padre Martini also included Jommelli among those rare composers who were able to meet the requirements of both operatic and church style. Jommelli’s operas, highly valued by connoisseurs, never enjoyed the popularity and reach of Hasse’s works. Outside the composer’s places of activity – i.e. outside Italy, Vienna, Stuttgart and Ludwigsburg – they were performed mainly at the courts of Mannheim and Lisbon (with which the composer was bound by a contract) and in the public theatres of London and Paris (Il paratojo). They also disappeared from the repertoire quite quickly and were performed only in Stuttgart until the end of the century. There, they influenced the works of F.J. Deller, Ch.L. Dieter and J.R. Zumsteeg. Jommelli’s operatic sinfonias proved to be much richer in their effects, imitated in Vienna, Mannheim and Paris, the centres of the new instrumental style. Only two of Jommelli’s comic compositions were performed in Warsaw: the comic intermezzo Don Trastullo (ca. 1766) and L’uccellatrice (1779). The royal court also performed La passione di Gesù Cristo (1791), and in 1788 the theatre library kept the score of another oratorio, probably also performed at the royal castle, Isacco figura del Redentore.

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