Dufay, Guillaume (EN)

Dufay, Du Fay, Du Fait, Guillaume, *c. 1400 probably in Cambrai or its vicinity, †27 November 1474 Cambrai, musician and composer, clergyman, Bachelor of Canon Law. In the years 1409–14 he stayed in Cambrai (earlier he probably studied with Jean Hesdin, a cleric from the diocese of Noyon); from 10 August 1409 he sang in the cathedral boys’ choir, and from 1413 in the men’s choir. In cathedral records he appeared as: “Willemet puer altaris”, “Willermus”, “Willermus du Fait”. At that time, he probably received musical training from the directors of the boys’ choir (1392–1412 Nicolas Malin, 1413–18 Richard Loqueville). For the years 1414–28 there is no documented evidence of Dufay’s activity or place of residence. It is assumed that he went in the retinue of the cardinal of Cambrai, Pierre d’Ailly, to the Council of Constance, where he may have come into contact with the courts of Carlo and Pandolfo Malatesta, well known to the cardinal. Most likely already at that time Dufay entered the service of the Malatesta family and, after the end of the council in 1418, went with them to Italy; however, it is also possible that he arrived there in the retinue of Pope Martin V, who on his way to Rome stayed for some time with the Malatestas at the turn of 1418/19. Dated dedications of three of Dufay’s works addressed successively to three members of the Malatesta family (Cleofe, Carlo and Pandolfo) indicate his contacts with their court in Pesaro and Rimini in the years 1420–26. Some historians assume that during that time he visited France, including Paris. He then probably came under the protection of Cardinal Louis Aleman, papal legate, as evidenced by the cardinal’s letters from 1427 and 1428. The composer likely stayed in his entourage in Bologna and in 1428 went with him to the papal court in Rome. From Aleman’s correspondence it is known that Dufay obtained the position of chaplain of St-Géry in Cambrai (30 May 1427) and that Nicolas Grenon substituted for him in these duties (from 19 May 1428). It is probable that in the years 1420–28 Dufay pursued university studies, since according to documents from October 1446 and his testament he held the degree of Bachelor of Canon Law. On the basis of recent research, the earlier assumption that he undertook these studies in the first half of the 1440s must be rejected. It is more likely that he studied until 1428 in Bologna, a renowned center of legal studies, associated both with Pandolfo Malatesta, titular chancellor of the university, and Cardinal Aleman, Doctor of Canon Law. From 20 December 1428 to July 1433 Dufay stayed in Rome as a singer in the papal chapel of Martin V and then Eugene IV. Some of his compositions from that period were written with particular persons (Pope Eugene IV, Niccolò d’Este) or events (the peace of Viterbo or the agreement in Ferrara) in mind, with which he came into contact in Italy. Papal documents confirm several benefices held by Dufay: 14 April 1429 – the rectory of the chapel of St Fiacre at the cathedral in Laon, 20 April 1430 – the chapel of St John the Baptist in Nouvion-le-Vineux, 1431 – in Tournai. In August 1433 Dufay went to Savoy (perhaps having obtained leave from papal service), and on 1 February 1434 he was engaged at the court of Duke Amadeus VIII, initially as a chaplain and later also as head of the court musical ensemble. On 7 February 1434 he was present in Chambéry at the wedding festivities of Amadeus’s son Louis and Anne of Cyprus. There he encountered for the first time the court of Duke Philip the Good, who arrived on 3 February 1434 from Dijon. The duke was accompanied by a musical ensemble which, according to the contemporary court chronicler Jean de Févre, performed the sung Mass on the day after the wedding ceremonies excellently. On 8 August 1434 Dufay left for Cambrai, where he probably stayed for several months, and then returned to Savoy. He directed the court musical ensemble of Louis, who had ascended the Savoyard throne in 1434. In June 1434 Dufay returned to the papal chapel and stayed with it first in Florence and then in Bologna. On 3 September 1436 he received from Pope Eugene IV the nomination as canon of Cambrai Cathedral. On 12 November 1436 the chapter in Cambrai approved this appointment, with Nicolas Grenon acting there as Dufay’s deputy. This nomination was of great prestige and material importance for Dufay, ensuring him a permanent base and connection with his native city; therefore, among the many ecclesiastical positions he held, he valued most highly and retained until his death the dignity of canon of Cambrai. Until May 1437 Dufay served in the papal chapel, then returned to the Savoy court, where he remained until the end of 1439. During that time, he visited Lausanne, where in August 1437 he was appointed canon of the cathedral; he also held the position of canon of St Donatian in Bruges and received (until 1442) benefices from Versoix. In April 1438 he was entrusted with an important function – representative of the Cambrai cathedral chapter at the Council of Basel, to which he went together with Robert Auclou, secretary to Cardinal Aleman; in May 1438 he was present in Bern at celebrations connected with the conclusion of a peace treaty; in the winter of 1438–39 (from 16 October) he accompanied Louis of Savoy during his stay in Pinerolo near Turin. In 1439 Dufay left Savoy. His departure was probably caused by the necessity of taking sides either with the Duke of Savoy or the ruler of Burgundy, who – initially allies – found themselves, during the schism at the Council of Basel, in opposing camps: the Duke of Burgundy remained a supporter of Pope Eugene IV, while the Duke of Savoy supported his father, the antipope Felix V. Dufay, threatened with the confiscation of his benefices in Burgundy, especially in Cambrai, likely left Louis’s court. The Duke of Savoy, attempting to regain his musician, sent a letter (5 December 1441) to Philip of Burgundy requesting that Dufay’s benefices not be confiscated. From December 1439 until spring 1450 Dufay remained continuously in Cambrai. During this time, he fulfilled the duties of a cathedral canon: liturgical service, especially on special occasions, administration of the cathedral, and ensuring the functioning of the chapter. In connection with his work he undertook a number of journeys: on 7 October 1446 and in February 1449 he visited the Burgundian court in Brussels; on 17 October 1446, 5 February 1448, and 3 March 1449 he stayed in Mons, where he held the office of canon and provost of the collegiate church of Ste-Waudru; before 8 May 1448 he traveled to Reims and Laon to purchase wine for the chapter. Moreover, in the years 1447–49 he held a benefice as parish priest in Zulzeke near Tournai; in the years 1447–66 he was also a canon of the collegiate church of Notre Dame in Condé and received income from there until the end of his life. Dufay’s musical activity at the cathedral was primarily connected with his office as master and supervisor of the so-called “lesser vicars”. This was a group of 13–16 singers (including 2–3 tenors and 2–3 singing countertenor parts) specially selected and brought from various regions of France and the Low Countries, trained in the performance of polyphonic music. Dufay assumed this function after Nicolas Grenon in 1442 and held it, with interruptions, until the end of his life. As magister parvorum vicariorum he was, in accordance with custom, responsible for the entire cathedral choir. He was also obliged to take care of the cathedral’s musical repertoire, both in the field of polyphony (supplying his own compositions and preparing works by other composers) and chant. In 1446 Dufay engaged Jean de Namps, a scribe and painter, to copy graduals and antiphonaries and to prepare illuminations; he also supervised the work of Girard Sohier from Douai, who supplemented these books – written in two copies for the convenience of the singers – with musical notation. Books containing polyphonic music were prepared by Simon Mellet, a lesser vicar and copyist active in Cambrai in the years 1447–75. From 11 March 1450 Dufay’s name disappears from the acts of the Cambrai chapter, and the function of supervisor of the lesser vicars was taken over by the former papal singer Jean Monami; on 26 May 1450 Dufay, accompanied by nine monks, arrived in Turin, where he stayed until 1 June of the same year at the expense of Louis of Savoy (it should be added that renewed contacts with the Savoy court took place a year after the end of the schism). He then probably stayed in Rome. In mid-December he returned briefly to Cambrai, resuming his former duties, but surviving correspondence from that time, in which Dufay is called adviser and guardian of Duke Louis’s chapel and urged to return quickly, testifies to his continued close ties with the Savoy court. In July 1452 Dufay left Cambrai and settled in Savoy, where he remained until 6 December 1458. The seven-year stay in Savoy mentioned in his testament most likely refers to this period, which is confirmed by information from the biography of Pierre de Vez, who during Dufay’s absence looked after his house and other affairs in Cambrai. Dufay’s activity at the Savoy court is known only in outline, since court records from that time have survived only fragmentarily. It is known that he was head of the court chapel (maître de la chapelle); on 8 December 1455 and in February 1456 he was in Geneva; at that time he sent his works (four Lamentations written in connection with the fall of Constantinople) to Pierre Giovanni de’ Medici; in September 1458 he was probably in Besançon, where he was called upon to settle a dispute concerning the modal classification of the antiphon O quanta exultatio. In December 1458 Dufay returned to Cambrai and spent the rest of his life there, apart from short trips in the vicinity on cathedral business. As in earlier years, he conducted extensive administrative activity. Dufay was a member of the confraternity of Notre Dame de Grâce and held numerous ecclesiastical offices associated with additional benefices: in 1465 chaplain of the church of Notre Dame in Noyelle, in 1466 chaplain of the parish church in Ohain near Avesnes, and in his final years, chaplain of the parish church in Peruwes, parish priest in Gouy, and of Notre Dame in Wauthier-Braine near Brussels. He also continued his musical activity as supervisor of the lesser vicars (with a break in 1464–65, when he was replaced by Simon le Breton) and head of the entire cathedral choir. In connection with this he performed a number of administrative duties (e.g. purchasing clothing and supervising the living conditions of the choirboys) and substantive ones (e.g. assessing the voices and musical talents of candidates for the choir, preparing the musical setting of solemn services, supervising the work of individual groups of cathedral singers, the general and musical education of the boys, evaluating the work and selecting the magister puerorum, etc.). In 1460 Dufay proposed Johannes Regis of Antwerp for the position of master of the boys (in place of the dismissed Robert de Chanoine). Ultimately, however, only on 9 July 1462 Jean du Sart was employed, while Johannes Regis became Dufay’s secretary. In this period Dufay decided not only on the personnel of the cathedral choir but also worked particularly intensively on shaping and completing the polyphonic repertoire for the cathedral, constantly collaborating with Simon Mellet, who in the years 1459–74 entered into the choirbooks, at Dufay’s instruction, many of his masses, motets, and Magnificats. The books written by Mellet have been lost, but the records contain notes on payments for copying Dufay’s works, e.g. from 1460–61, 1464–65, 1473–74 (a copy of the Mass Ave Regina from the 1470s may still have been personally authorized by Dufay). From Dufay’s biography it follows that the main center of his organizational and creative activity was Cambrai. This diocese was among the leading, wealthy (comprising 1029 parishes) and territorially extensive ecclesiastical centers in Europe, and the cathedral of Notre Dame itself, architecturally comparable to those in Paris and Chartres, provided Dufay with significant opportunities for musical activity. The form of services and their musical setting in Cambrai Cathedral were distinguished, according to contemporary accounts, by beautiful singing, rich illumination, and the excellence of the bells. Marian feasts were celebrated particularly solemnly, with rich polyphonic settings, largely owing to Dufay. During his tenure the cathedral choir numbered about 35 singers, including about 25 trained in polyphonic performance. The choir consisted of three groups: 6–8 boys, 13–16 lesser vicars, and about 12 chaplains, who mainly performed chant. The full choir performed only on special occasions; most often smaller ensembles of a few singers were used. At that time, probably only a cappella music was cultivated there, since there are no references to the existence of organs or the use of other instruments, apart from bells, within the cathedral. In Cambrai Dufay’s position as a clergyman was considerable; he was also regarded as an outstanding teacher of music. He was materially very well situated, lived in his own house near the cathedral, had an extensive library, servants, and a secretary. Thanks to his organizational and creative activity (his works were performed there for another 40 years after his death), Cambrai Cathedral significantly increased its prestige also as a musical and educational center—courts of Burgundian dukes, French kings, and Italian aristocrats (e.g. the Medici in Florence) eagerly recruited musicians trained in Cambrai. During the last two years of his life Dufay was seriously ill and remained under the care of a physician, Baude Mansel, and local barbers-surgeons. He died on 27 December 1474 on a Sunday evening as a result of heart disease and dropsy. Dufay’s funeral was conducted with full ceremonial. During the requiem service his Requiem, the sequence Dies irae, the hymn Magna salutis gaudio, and, according to his wishes, the motet Ave Regina were performed. He bequeathed his property in his will to liturgical and charitable purposes.

As early as the fifteenth century, musicians and music theorists were aware of the groundbreaking role of Dufay’s work in the development of contemporary music. Many writers and musicians (including the most eminent fifteenth-century music theorist, Johannes Tinctoris) mentioned Dufay and cited his works, emphasizing above all the modernity and originality of his achievements. This view has been fully upheld by modern musicology, devoting extensive literature to Dufay. Alongside the pioneering studies of Ch. van den Borren, the first monographer of Dufay, and more recent publications by C. Wright commenting on new biographical data drawn from the Archives départementales du Nord in Lille (series 46) and the Bibliothèque Municipale in Cambrai (manuscript 1058), the analyses and conclusions of R. von Ficker, J. Marix, M. Bukofzer, R. Bockhold, Ch. Hamm, and many others deserve attention, most notably H. Besseler, the most insightful and distinguished scholar and editor of Dufay’s works. Most of Besseler’s theses concerning the composer’s oeuvre remain valid to this day. Agreement regarding Dufay’s essential contribution to the development of European compositional technique did not preclude vigorous debate and opposing interpretations concerning technical details. Scholars have differed in their assessment of Dufay’s role in the development of a cappella polyphony, as well as in their interpretation of the harmonic character of his works. Above all, there has been considerable discussion of the nature and origins of the fauxbourdon technique he employed. Dufay’s artistic standing in contemporary Europe was undoubtedly high. His numerous travels and stays in important political and cultural centers, his associations with courts, especially the papal, Savoyard, and Burgundian courts, his contacts with prominent families such as the Malatesta, d’Este, and Medici, as well as with high-ranking church officials, and his positions within the ecclesiastical hierarchy all contributed to the gradual growth and consolidation of his reputation and popularity. In accordance with the mentality of the time, Dufay himself placed his clerical activity foremost; consequently, the course of his musical activity, particularly his compositional work, is less well documented. Over the course of his long life, he was active not only as a composer but also as a performer and teacher of music. Unfortunately, there is insufficient data to characterize Dufay in detail as a performing musician, both as a singer and as a director of musical ensembles. The level of his artistry can only be inferred from the high status of the institutions in which he worked. As a teacher, Dufay was probably active primarily in Cambrai, initially as master of the choirboys and later as supervisor of the entire cathedral music establishment. It is difficult today to determine with certainty which composers were his direct pupils; it is known, however, that among those who remained under his care and benefited from his guidance and inspiration were Antoine Busnois, Johannes Regis, Johannes Tinctoris, Pierre Caron, and Johannes Ockeghem. Many acknowledged this influence either through their compositions (especially Ockeghem) or in written testimony (e.g., Tinctoris). Dufay’s activity fostered the development of his creative talent and enabled him to come into contact with leading composers of his time, as well as to become acquainted with various musical styles, including Italian, French, and English music. He left more than 220 compositions preserved in approximately fifty manuscripts from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, of various types and origins. Italian, German, Netherlandish, English, and French sources contain both anonymous and attributed works, preserved in complete or incomplete notation (e.g., lacking one voice considered to be improvised), with varying treatment of text underlay, most often in the form of partbooks, sometimes in multiple authorial versions or later arrangements, in both black and white mensural notation, as well as in German-style tablature. In sources containing larger numbers of Dufay’s works, the repertory is usually mixed; Mass cycles and often secular works were copied separately, the latter frequently in richly decorated partbooks. Dufay was a versatile composer: he wrote vocal and vocal-instrumental music, both sacred and secular, functioning in society as liturgical music, courtly music, music celebrating or commemorating political, religious, dynastic, and other important events in contemporary Europe, as well as domestic music intended for private and amateur use. He employed nearly the full range of genres and forms current at the time: the cyclic Mass and individual forms of liturgical music (Ordinary and Proper), the motet, simple chant settings, and sacred song, as well as, in particular, secular song in the forms of ballade, rondeau, virelai, and the freer chanson. He set texts in Latin, French, and – less frequently – Italian.

Dufay was the founder and principal representative of the Burgundian School, embodying in his works its fundamental ideological and compositional principles. His activity extends beyond the chronological framework of the school, usually placed around 1430–1460. The music of the Burgundian School, represented, alongside Dufay, by composers such as Nicolas Grenon, Gilles Binchois, and Pierre Fontaine, has a character typical of the transitional period between the late ars nova and Netherlandish polyphony. Composers of this milieu made a significant contribution to the history of music, particularly in shaping the vocal polyphonic texture and a new harmonic conception of musical works. The traditions underlying Dufay’s work stem primarily from Italian (and to a lesser extent French) music of the second half of the fourteenth century. In his early period, Dufay was influenced by the late ars nova style, especially by Ciconia; certain features of this style persisted for a long time, influencing particularly the choice of forms in secular music (ballade, rondeau, etc.) and sacred music (simple devotional songs), as well as performance practices (vocal-instrumental scoring). Italian music also influenced the plasticity and clarity of melodic articulation, the interest in imitation (especially in duets of upper voices), and changes in voice treatment. Equally important was the influence of English traditions (conductus technique, English discant), particularly the technical achievements of the school of Dunstable (tenor cantus firmus, panconsonant style, elements of the cyclic Mass, melodic features, and others). The chronology of Dufay’s works is only partially known. In general, the evolution of his individual style progressed from isorhythmic compositions based on fourteenth-century models to freer contrapuntal settings, primarily associated with the cantus firmus technique, and ultimately to a developed polyphonic texture that inaugurated the era of Netherlandish polyphony. This evolution was thus primarily linked to changes in voice treatment and, consequently, to transformations in the perception and structure of harmonic organization. Dufay cultivated both sacred and secular music throughout his career, concentrating more on larger liturgical forms only in his later years. This shift was conditioned by the nature of his employment and the performance resources available in the centers where he worked. Performance practices also evolved: in the early period, vocal-instrumental scoring predominated (typically one vocal part with two instruments, or more rarely a vocal duet with instrumental accompaniment). Instrumentation was not precisely specified. In secular music, Dufay likely used woodwinds, strings, and plucked instruments, while in solemn sacred music he employed brass instruments (trumpets, trombones) and possibly the organ. Vocal-instrumental practice persisted longer in secular works, whereas in later sacred compositions it gave way to a cappella vocal performance. The alternatim technique was also frequently employed. Dufay favored solo vocal forces and small ensembles (e.g., a five-voice group for a Marian Mass in Cambrai in 1457, or a group of boys and two adult singers for the motet Ave Regina). In secular songs he also used instrumental interludes, although purely instrumental music never occupied a central place in his output.

Dufay primarily employed the three-voice texture characteristic of the Burgundian School (discantus, tenor, and countertenor; less frequently, two discant parts and a tenor). In his liturgical works, he later expanded this to four and five voices (with two tenors or countertenor). The phenomenon of solus tenor is rare in Dufay’s output (e.g., in the isorhythmic motet Apostolo glorioso), whereas a functionally distinct so-called combined bass also appears. The treatment of voices underwent significant changes during the Burgundian period, determining a transformation in the style of polyphonic music. The medieval layering of contrasting voices gave way to their unification and to a concern for harmonic sonority resulting from the interaction of melodic lines. This clearly influenced the shaping of melody, which only in isorhythmic works was confined to fixed (isomelic) patterns. Initially, Dufay relied mainly on discant technique (with a developed upper voice), while retaining the instrumental character of the remaining parts; over time, however, an extremely important process of vocalization of the voices can be observed in many works. This process primarily affected the tenor line, connected with the composer’s use of a tenor cantus firmus and discant–tenor technique, and later also the countertenor. At the same time, the number of voices increased to four, the role of cadences (parallel and octave) changed and expanded, and a bass foundation began to emerge; the countertenor ceased to function merely as an auxiliary voice and extended downward beyond the tenor’s range. These processes, especially the vocalization of the parts, can be observed both in mature motets (e.g., O proles Hispaniae) and in many other forms (e.g., O gloriose tiro, Propter nimiam caritatem).

In the final period of his oeuvre, Dufay clearly approaches the Netherlandish style through a unified, fully vocalized four-voice texture incorporating a tenor cantus firmus, as well as through a cappella performance practice (e.g., Missa Ave Regina). The evolution of Dufay’s compositional style was also reflected in metro-rhythmic changes, involving a transition from prolatio maior and a faster motion (e.g., Helas ma dame) to tempus perfectum and a significantly slower tempo (e.g., Vergine bella). A number of factors contributed to transformations in the sonic profile of his works, including the expansion of the pitch range – especially in the lower register – changes in voice structure, the development of melody toward greater smoothness (eliminating leading tones and wide intervallic leaps), changes in the treatment of instruments, and the formation of a bass foundation. Alongside the predominance of fifth–octave sonorities with a fundamental tone, noteworthy – especially in the early period – is the emergence of new harmonic combinations, the expansion and redefinition of cadence function, particularly those built on the fifth and first degrees of the scale (e.g., Je me complains, Las que feray), and the increased role of imperfect consonances, especially thirds (characteristic of Dufay is the free alternation between major and minor thirds, e.g., in the motet Alma redemptoris mater). It is also important to note the evolution in Dufay’s treatment of chant (cantus firmus), which came to be regarded as an essential component of polyphonic structure. In constructing his works, Dufay employed a wide range of compositional techniques: isorhythm, fauxbourdon, the cantus firmus technique, imitation (especially so-called initial imitation, which played a significant role in unifying cyclic compositions), canon (e.g., in the motet Inclita stella maris), and, in several motets, variation technique as a form-generating device. The fauxbourdon technique is particularly associated with Dufay’s name, since its earliest manifestations appear in his works. In Dufay’s output, especially in the early period, this technique is used extensively; hence many scholars (including Besseler) regard him as its originator. According to Besseler, fauxbourdon consists in the parallel doubling of the upper melodic voice at the interval of a fourth, combined with a freely moving lowest voice (most often an instrumental tenor), which completes the resulting intervallic structure into a sonority equivalent to a sixth chord. This produces successions of sonorities emphasizing the importance of thirds. Other scholars (e.g., von Ficker), however, maintain that Dufay adopted this technique in an already developed form from English practice, associating the origins of fauxbourdon with the tradition of English discant (an improvisatory polyphonic technique based on successions of imperfect consonances – thirds and sixths). In general, fauxbourdon had relatively limited and short-lived significance, being to some extent local in both geographical distribution and in terms of form and genre, and in practice appeared only in specific types of compositions. Passages written in fauxbourdon technique occur for the first time, and most frequently in Dufay’s works. The earliest such composition is the postcommunio Vos qui secuti estis from the Mass of St James, dated to 1426–28. In addition, Dufay composed approximately 125 fauxbourdon passages and employed them in 24 works, primarily in smaller Office forms, hymns, and Magnificats, especially those performed using the alternatim technique (70%), as well as in parts of the Mass Ordinary, particularly Kyrie settings (30%). Initially, in fauxbourdon passages, the principal melody appears in the upper voice (see the hymns Christe redemptor and Pange lingua); a more advanced form of fauxbourdon (the so-called sing fauxbourdon of Besseler) also displays a considerable degree of tenor vocalization (see Propter nimiam caritatem).

The motet is the most representative genre in Dufay’s output. Here, as in the cyclic Mass, one can observe the technical and stylistic transformations taking place in polyphonic music of the period. The composer cultivated above all the isorhythmic motet, the polyphonic motet based on cantus firmus, and the song motet. Dufay’s motets were also diverse in content: liturgical, intended exclusively for solemn services (e.g., Nuper rosarum); devotional, in the manner of private prayer or settings of parts of the Proper of the Mass (e.g., introits, antiphons); secular, with political content (e.g., Magnam me gentes) or ceremonial function (e.g., the epithalamium Vasilissa ergo), generally with Latin texts, although multilingual works still occur (e.g., the lament Tres piteulx – Omnes amici eius). Dufay’s isorhythmic motets are large-scale compositions, written until about the mid-1440s, often polytextual and scored for three or four voices, sometimes even five (e.g., passages from Apostolo glorioso, Ecclesiae militantis). They belong to the representative group of courtly and ecclesiastical vocal-instrumental works. Isorhythm sometimes permeates all voices (e.g., Ecclesiae militantis), and at other times appears only in the lowest voice (e.g., Supremum est). Dufay employed two to four talea patterns, frequently used diminution of motifs, varied the scoring (e.g., bicinium passages and the fourth voice in Vasilissa ergo), and also applied fauxbourdon (e.g., in Juvenis qui puellam, notably the earliest use of this technique in the motet) and canon (e.g., in Vasilissa ergo and Nuper rosarum). The composer gradually relaxed the strict mathematical structure of the isorhythmic motet, introducing elements of imitation (e.g., Nuper rosarum). Polytextuality and the structural isorhythm of the upper voices, characteristic of his early works, gradually disappear. Recurring rhythmic schemes are transformed into successions of sonorities, and variation becomes a unifying principle throughout the work. Transitional forms include isomelic structures, based on similar melodic material distributed in a corresponding manner. By altering his treatment of voices and abandoning the isorhythmic approach to cantus firmus, Dufay created a different type of motet: a large-scale, bipartite composition for four or five voices, with the cantus firmus in the tenor in long note values (sometimes ornamented) and with free counterpoint in the remaining voices (e.g., Ave Regina), which may also draw on chant material. Song motets, more modest in musical means and associated with domestic devotion, form another category. Based on texts of introits and antiphons (most often Marian), these are short compositions, usually in three voices with a discant–tenor structure. Fauxbourdon passages occur frequently. Repeated and sustained sonorities in three-part texture paved the way for the later four-part chordal style, especially as Dufay experimented with two countertenors (altus and bassus), tending to treat one of them as a true bass voice. The distinctive sonority of these works is further emphasized by cadential structures built on the V–I degrees of the scale (e.g., Sebastiane magna es). In connection with the tendency to link artistic expression, both externally and internally, with religion, there emerged a drive to create cycles of works, such as sets of introits for the entire liturgical year, alongside a marked increase in the importance of Gregorian cantus firmus. Similar tendencies can also be observed in other genres, such as hymns and Magnificats.

Hymns, Magnificats, and sequences constitute a distinct group of chant-based compositions of simple structure, whose principal feature is an alternative manner of performance. Individual verses of the text are performed alternately in plainchant and in polyphonic settings, with the chant material paraphrased in the upper voice of the polyphonic sections (e.g., the sequence Laetabundus; in the sequence Veni sancte spiritus, the chant appears exceptionally in the middle voice). In these compositions, Dufay makes particularly frequent use of the fauxbourdon technique (e.g., the hymn In nativitate Domini), which also gives rise to patterns of alternation such as chant–polyphony or polyphony–fauxbourdon (e.g., the hymn Ad coenam), as well as chant–polyphony–fauxbourdon (e.g., Magnificat sexti toni).

Dufay left numerous settings of the Ordinary of the Mass, chiefly of the Kyrie and Gloria, and fewer of the Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei. These works probably date from the 1430s and 1440s. Some can be combined into paired Mass movements or incomplete three-part cycles, while others survive as independent compositions. A few were written in the older discant style, but most display features characteristic of the Burgundian School. The cantus firmus, when placed in the upper voice, is often ornamented, diminished, augmented, and varied; it appears only rarely in the middle voice (e.g., Kyrie Orbis factor). Characteristic of the melodic style is the division into motives, sometimes repeated many times to produce an ostinato effect; short rhythmic and melodic imitations, canon (e.g., Gloria ad modum tubae), more rarely hocket, and syllabic declamation (Credo) also occur. Most Mass movements are performed in alternatim (alternation of chant and polyphony). In the Kyrie, Dufay most often employed the following scheme: Kyrie (chant) – Kyrie (polyphony) – Christe (polyphony) – Christe (chant) – Kyrie (chant) – Kyrie (polyphony) – Kyrie (chant). Although the structure of the Mass movements is determined by the liturgical text, Dufay generally sought to expand their musical form, either through the alternatim technique or by adding tropes and diversifying their treatment with passages in monody and in two-, three-, four-, or five-voice textures. Dufay is the author of eight Mass cycles (one preserved fragmentarily). These are mostly five-movement settings of the Ordinary, sometimes expanded to six movements (e.g., by adding a second Agnus Dei); there is also a single plenary Mass, Missa Sancti Jacobi, comprising nine movements, including Introit, Alleluia, Offertory, and Communion. Dufay unified his Mass cycles primarily through head-motifs and, in some cases (especially in later works), through a common cantus firmus. He employed a wide range of compositional techniques: isorhythmic, discant, conductus, fauxbourdon, imitative, and canonic, and at times more elaborate devices such as retrograde canon (e.g., the Agnus from Missa L’homme armé). He frequently varied the vocal scoring within a work, most often using three- and four-voice textures. The fixed melodies were drawn mainly from Gregorian chant, more rarely from secular sources (e.g., Missa Se la face ay pale, based on his own chanson; Missa L’homme armé). Clear stylistic transformations can be observed across Dufay’s Mass compositions. The earliest Masses are characterized by the discant style (e.g., Missa sine nomine), which is probably one of the earliest cyclic Mass settings of the fifteenth century; its structure still reflects the earlier practice of composing paired movements, notably Gloria–Credo and Sanctus–Agnus. Missa Sancti Jacobi, in turn, stands at the intersection of the discant and tenor Mass types. It is technically varied, employing different cantus firmi in individual movements, varied rhythmic treatment, and diverse textures: instrumental duets, song-like three-voice writing, four-voice motet texture with chant cantus firmus in the tenor, and fauxbourdon passages. Masses of the middle period clearly make use of the cantus firmus technique derived from tenor motet practice (e.g., Missa Se la face ay pale, Missa L’homme armé). The tenor cantus firmus still contrasts strongly with the other voices and does not yet shape their structure; it does not permeate the entire work, and where it is absent, freer passages in two- or three-voice textures appear (e.g. in Se la face ay pale mass). It is treated rather rigidly, presented either in full or in sections, and subjected to ornamentation, augmentation, and diminution. Devices such as canons in the style of the caccia or instrumental fanfare-like figures occur less frequently (Missa Se la face ay pale). These Masses were most likely composed in Savoy, and it is possible that Dufay envisaged organ accompaniment for them. The Mass compositions of Dufay’s final period (Missa Ecce ancilla and Missa Ave Regina, written in Cambrai) develop the cantus firmus technique toward a unified four-voice vocal texture in the spirit of Netherlandish polyphony. Greater balance among the voices leads to a new treatment of the fixed melody: the cantus firmus is handled more freely than in the Savoyard Masses, imitative passages and chordal progressions appear, the earlier opposition between tenor and the other voices disappears, and the cantus firmus permeates all voices throughout the work, further unifying the cycle (see Missa Ave Regina). These Masses were probably performed vocally a cappella; some movements are expanded (e.g., the Hosanna in Missa Ecce ancilla, the Agnus in Missa Ave Regina). In the second setting of the Agnus from Missa Ave Regina, partly based on an earlier motet Ave Regina, Dufay moves away from the conventional treatment of the cantus firmus toward what would later become the missa parodia technique. Although full cyclic unity is not yet achieved, these final Masses clearly anticipate the later Netherlandish Mass cycles.

Dufay’s secular output, apart from a few motets of secular content mentioned above, consists primarily of solo songs with instrumental accompaniment. The tradition for these forms is rooted in the Italian song of the fourteenth century, cultivated by both native composers and Netherlandish musicians active in Italy, as well as in the popular French chanson. The poetic texts of these songs determined the shape of the musical setting, which had to conform to metrical norms and the structure of the poems. Departures from these principles, such as repetitions of words or phrases, occur only rarely. The texts themselves do not stand out from contemporary courtly and bourgeois poetry; they deal with themes of love, ceremonies and festivities, springtime, entertainment, banquets, and similar subjects. In the manuscripts, the text is usually written only under the upper voice, more rarely under two voices (e.g., Adieu m’amours, Votre bruit) or all voices (e.g., Ce jour de l’an), suggesting performance practice. The influence of the older motet is visible in the occasional use of multiple languages, for example, French and Latin texts in La belle se siet and Je ne puis plus. The most frequently used form in Dufay’s songs is the rondeau, built on a slightly modified traditional text–musical scheme (abaaabab); less often he employed the Italian or French ballade in its traditional form, sometimes enriched with instrumental insertions featuring syncopated rhythm and chromatic melody (e.g., C’est bien raison), while the strophic ballade of the aab type appears only rarely. His output also includes a few virelais and songs with freer textual forms. Dufay’s songs are almost exclusively in three voices, with the melody in the discantus, though there are also duets for discantus and tenor (e.g., Helas mon dueil). They were typically performed by a solo voice, more rarely by two voices with instrumental accompaniment; some take the form of a dialogue (e.g., Estrinez moy), and certain ballades include instrumental introductions, interludes, and postludes (e.g., Je me complains). The instrumental character of the lower voices was generally pronounced (e.g., Helas ma dame). Over time, Dufay’s songs show a clear tendency toward simplification of form and technique. Formal symmetry becomes more pronounced, and the cantilena-like melody is sometimes constructed almost entirely from cadential formulas; triple meter predominates. The discant style is dominant, although discant–tenor structures also occur (e.g., Le serviteur, Se la face ay pale), and occasionally works appear in which all texted voices are relatively balanced, anticipating the later polyphonic chanson. The melodies are usually original, only rarely derived from earlier models (e.g., La belle se siet). Dufay varied his compositions and highlighted textual passages through the use of specific technical devices such as recitative (e.g., La belle se siet), chordal successions (e.g., Resoellies vous), canon (see Par droit je puis), imitation (e.g., Donnez l’assault, Mon cuer me fait), fanfare-like passages (e.g., Donnez l’assault), and others.

Dufay’s contribution to the development of music, as the principal representative of the Burgundian School, is so significant that it places him among the greatest composers in the history of European music. His output, rich in numerous innovative technical features and reflecting fundamental transformations both in intellectual outlook and in contemporary musical thinking concerning the vertical and horizontal conception of a work, on the one hand directly prepared the emergence of the Netherlandish school of composers associated with Ockeghem, and on the other initiated processes of change within the tonal system that became fully apparent only in the works of composers of the following century. The influence of Dufay’s formal and technical concepts can be observed across various musical centers of the fifteenth century, and traces of their impact extend into the work of later composers such as Heinrich Isaac and Josquin des Prés. The influence of Dufay’s oeuvre is also evident in Polish music, above all in the works of Mikołaj of Radom, preserved in Polish manuscripts from the first half of the fifteenth century.

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