Frescobaldi, Girolamo (EN)

Frescobaldi, Girolamo, *12 September 1583 Ferrara, †l March 1643 Rome (buried in the church of SS. Apostoli), Italian composer and organist. Born into a bourgeois family in Ferrara, he was the eldest son of Lucrezia and Filippo (possibly an organist?) Frescobaldi. Musically gifted from an early age, Frescobaldi studied under L. Luzzaschi, organist and maestro di cappella of the cathedral and the court of Alfonso II d’Este. Numerous later dedications and references attest to Luzzaschi’s authority and the high esteem in which Frescobaldi held him as a teacher. During his studies (exact dates unknown), Frescobaldi was likely exposed to leading Italian and foreign music of the period, performed by the Ferrara court and cathedral ensembles. Contemporary sources praise his abilities in singing, organ, harpsichord, lute, and other instruments. In 1604 Frescobaldi moved to Rome, probably with support from the Bentivoglio family, establishing contacts with aristocratic households, especially the Aldobrandini and Borghese. He worked as organist and singer at the Congregazione e Accademia di S. Cecilia and, from January to May 1607, at S. Maria in Trastevere. In 1607 he traveled to Flanders with the papal nuncio Guido Bentivoglio, passing through Switzerland, Lorraine, and Luxembourg. He stayed in Brussels for several months and in 1608, for unknown reasons, he left Bentivoglio’s service and returned to Italy to begin publishing his first works. His early recognition is reflected in his participation in the collective publication Canzoni per sonare… (Venice, 1608) alongside established composers such as G. Gabrieli, C. Merulo, and L. Luzzaschi. On 21 July 1608 Frescobaldi won a competition against A. Costantini for the position of organist at the Cappella Giulia in St. Peter’s Basilica, which he soon assumed and held – with interruptions – until his death. Around this time he also established contacts with leading composers of the papal chapel. It is uncertain whether in 1608 or later (1615?) he entered the service of Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini. On 18 February 1613 he married Orsola del Pino (1590–1651), with whom he had five children: three sons (Francesco, Domenico, Stefano) and two daughters (Maddalena, Caterina). Persistent financial difficulties led him to take on additional engagements alongside his position at the Cappella Giulia, including a six-month absence from Rome in 1610 (activities unknown) and an unsuccessful attempt in September 1614, through singer Paolo Falconi, to secure an organist post at the court of Cardinal Ferdinando Gonzaga in Mantua. The negotiations continued for a long time and were ultimately unsuccessful. Although in February 1615 Frescobaldi traveled to Mantua, he returned to Rome after only two months. In March 1628 Frescobaldi likely participated in ceremonies at Cardinal Aldobrandini’s household honoring the Prince of Tuscany, Ferdinando II de Medici, whom he later served as court organist at the end of 1628. He remained in Florence until November 1633, and after he returned to Rome. Reports of his presence in Venice in 1635–36 remain hypothetical. Frescobaldi’s fame as an organist and composer enabled him to attract a large number of pupils, drawn not only from Italy but also from other countries, such as Germany and Poland (in 1625 two Poles, including A. Niżankowski, studied with him). Among his notable pupils were J.J. Froberger, B. Grassi, M.A. Rossi, B. Roncaglia, and others. Some editions of Frescobaldi’s works include an engraving of his portrait, probably made by Giovanni Saliano.

Contemporaries praised Frescobaldi’s virtuosity, though his style drew criticism from some, such as G.B. Doni. His output includes both vocal and instrumental music, though the latter is far more significant. Especially in earlier studies, Frescobaldi is often described as innovative in the field of instrumental music. However, the composer did not create any entirely new form or style; rather, he brought sixteenth-century forms and compositional techniques to their highest development through individual treatment and specific interrelationships, representing a significant step forward in the emergence of instrumental music as an independent genre, increasingly autonomous from vocal models. Frescobaldi’s creative output – even though it dates to the first half of the 17th century – should therefore be considered in relation to the Italian music of the preceding period rather than to Baroque instrumental music. For it was not innovation but technical mastery and the depth of expression that characterizes his works that earned Frescobaldi his reputation. Frescobaldi’s instrumental output is not stylistically uniform. His repertoire consists primarily of so-called original instrumental music; it is almost entirely devoid of instrumental arrangements of vocal works, which were extremely popular in the 16th century. Due to fundamental difficulties in chronological classification, it is not always possible to trace the historical development of certain types of Frescobaldi’s works. Among the characteristic features of Frescobaldi’s instrumental music is a close connection to the music of the preceding period, evident in: 1. the absence of strict specifications regarding the performance setting of a piece (organ, other keyboard instruments, an unspecified instrumental ensemble, and the interchangeability of performance resources); 2. the use of forms characteristic of 16th-century instrumental music (ricercar, canzona, toccata, fantasia, etc.); 3. modal tonality with the use of chromaticism, in which the clear influence of the late 16th-century madrigal style is evident; 4. the use of popular harmonic-melodic models (passamezzo antico and moderno, romanesca, folia, ruggiero, etc.); 5. references to many other details of compositional technique characteristic of late 16th-century instrumental music, especially the so-called Neapolitan school (A. Mayone, G.M. Trabaci), of which Frescobaldi was an outstanding exponent. Frescobaldi’s individual contribution primarily concerns certain approaches to the treatment of variation and ostinato techniques, as well as cyclical formal structures (the prototype of the prelude and fugue).

Among the diverse instrumental forms, canzonas, toccatas, partitas, and capriccios come to the fore. Canzonas, initially still built on the principle of textural contrast using several themes (as in C. Merulo), evolve into Frescobaldi’s characteristic variation canzonas, composed of many – three to over a dozen – sections (this segmentation is further emphasized by figuration and tempo changes in internal cadences) employing multi-stage variation of the theme. This involves not only variations on the theme but also variations on the original thematic structure, leading to a significant uniformity of form. Other, typically polyphonic compositions, such as the ricercars and fantasias, are for Frescobaldi primarily a field for artful contrapuntal manipulations of the piece’s theme or themes, with the composer employing a sequence of fugal expositions of themes simultaneously subjected to variational treatments.

Frescobaldi’s toccatas, appearing both as larger, independent figurative compositions and as short preludes (insertions in appropriate places in liturgical compositions as well as in connection with larger polyphonic forms as the beginning of a prelude and fugue cycle), are characterized by: 1. rich segmentation of form, 2. sharp contrasts achieved through chromaticism and dissonances (so-called “durezze”), rhythmic variation (complementary structures, syncopations—so-called “ligature,” etc.), 3. the simultaneous sounding of figurative patterns differing in metrorhythmic terms.

Frescobaldi’s partitas consist of sets of a dozen or so variations based on harmonic models or folk melodies, or are collections of dances in which the interesting correlation between dance rhythmic patterns and the variational treatment deserves attention. The emphasis placed on the opening and closing sections of the set, as well as the cohesion of the whole, may indicate an understanding of the essence of cyclic form. For this reason, Frescobaldi’s partitas can be considered early forms of the Baroque variation suite. Frescobaldi is also credited with developing ostinato variation forms such as the chaconne and the passacaglia, which are based on the repetition of short melodic motifs in the bass (chaconne) or on the repetition of rhythmic and harmonic patterns in the ostinato style (passacaglia).

Frescobaldi’s capriccios demonstrate the greatest formal and technical freedom, combining many of the features of the forms described above. In developing the themes, the composer employs fugal, canonical, figurative (the introduction of toccata-like passages), variational, and ostinato techniques (the elaboration of solmization structures, harmonic models, folk melodies, popular arias, as well as a Christmas carol in the Capriccio pastorale – one of the earliest works of its kind); some capriccios are devoted to specific technical challenges (dissonant harmony, syncopated rhythm), utilize illustrative effects, and introduce the principle of multi-section structure (similar to the canzone) or multi-part structure (similar to the partita).

Frescobaldi’s instrumental compositions, which were functionally linked to the liturgy, gained great popularity. The basis of the three organ masses (Messa della Domenica, Messa degli Apostoli, Messa della Madonna) included in the collection Fiori musicali – copied and studied by J.S. Bach – is the altematim technique.

There are no fundamental differences in compositional technique between Frescobaldi’s music for keyboard instruments and his chamber music. In ensemble music, the composer frequently employs the basso seguente. Vocal works constitute a marginal part of Frescobaldi’s oeuvre; however, it is generally believed that a significant portion of this music has simply not survived to the present day. Sacred compositions have survived, mainly solo works accompanied by basso continuo (e.g., motets), as well as secular works: madrigals and recitative-style arias accompanied by basso continuo (including in the form of strophic variations, so-called chamber duets, and others).

Frescobaldi’s work can be characterized as the final pinnacle of the first stage in the development of independent instrumental music; hence, its influence on later generations of composers was relatively limited. This influence, confined mainly to composers of the North German circle (including J.J. Froberger, J.K. Kerll, D. Buxtehude, and J.S. Bach) and – to a lesser extent – composers of the Bolognese school (including E. Pasquini, M.A. Rossi), consisted solely of references to certain technical details (e.g., the toccata-like quality in fugal forms, the free variation-based canzona – among German composers – or harmony and keyboard technique – among Italian composers). Frescobaldi’s significance as a performer (a virtuoso organist and improviser) is attested to by numerous contemporary accounts (L. Battiferi, A. Liberati, A. Libanori, A. Maugar, V. Giustiniani, B. Grassi, S. Bonini, and others) as well as from Frescobaldi’s preface to the 1615 edition of his collection of toccatas, which contains detailed instructions on performing music on keyboard instruments. Frescobaldi employed a performance style characterized primarily by an emphasis on the structure of the piece (a distinct opening and the accentuation of cadences through rubato and other technical means), a specific treatment of figurative structures (free syncopation, note prolongation, and deliberate metrical and rhythmic dissonance between the two-hand parts), a particular focus on agogics (the introduction of the terms adagio, allegro, and rubato), and – characteristic of Italian music – a relatively limited use of the pedal in organ performance.

Given the current state of research, it is not possible to provide a complete and exhaustive presentation of Frescobaldi’s body of compositions. Repeated reprints of certain collections with minor changes, the use of the same title page in different editions, inconsistent book numbering, etc., make it impossible in many cases to determine the actual date and content of an edition or manuscript transmission. To date, there is no complete, source-based edition of Frescobaldi’s works, nor is there a monograph incorporating the latest archival research; musicological literature also lacks a bibliography of copies – most often manuscript – made repeatedly in the 17th and 18th centuries from prints or individual works by Frescobaldi. The collection of editions of Frescobaldi’s works also raises doubts (most are editions intended for practical use, sometimes deviating quite significantly from the original; some publications—especially 19th-century ones contain compositions falsely attributed to Frescobaldi, such as fugues).

Literature: F.X. Haberl Girolamo Frescobaldi. Darstellung seines Lebensganges und Schaffens auf Grund archivalischer und bibliographischer Documente, “Kirchenmusikalisches Jahrbuch” II, 1887; Ferrara a Girolmo Frescobaldi, ed. N. Bennati, Ferrara 1908; A. Cametti Girolamo Frescobaldi in Roma, “Rivista Musicale Italiana” XV, 1908; A. Pirro Frescobaldi et les musiciens de la France et des Pays-Bas, “Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft” IV, 1908; F. Boghen Alcune prefazioni e indici frescobaldiani, Neapol 1919; G.B. Benvenuti Notarella circa tre fughe attribuite a Frescobaldi, “Rivista Musicale Italiana” XXVII, 1920; L. Ronga Girolamo Frescobaldi organista vaticano, Turin 1930; G. Benvenuti Frescobaldiana, “Bollettino Bibliografico Musicale” 1931; R. Casimiri Girolamo Frescobaldi, “Note d’Archivio per la Storia Musicale”, 1933 iss. 1, 1934 iss. 1, 1937 iss. 1; G. Frotscher Geschichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgelkomposition, vol. 1, Berlin 1935, 2nd ed. 1959; W. Apel Neapolitan Links between Cabezón and Frescobaldi, “The Musical Quarterly” XXIV, 1938; F. Morel Girolamo Frescobaldi organista di S. Pietro di Roma, Winterthur 1945; H.F. Redlich The Music of Frescobaldi, “The Score” II, 1950; A. Machabey Girolamo Frescobaldi Ferrarensis (1583–1643), Paris 1952; H.F. Redlich Girolamo Frescobaldi, “The Music Review” XIV, 1953; L. Ronga Grandezza e solitudine di Girolamo Frescobaldi, “Rivista Musicale Italiana” LVI, 1954; W. Apel Die handschriftliche Überlieferung der Klavierwerke Frescobaldis, in celebratory publication for K.G. Fellerer, Regensburg 1962; W. Apel Geschichte der Orgel- und Klaviermusik bis 1700, Kassel 1967; R. Jackson On Frescobalid’s Chromaticism and Its Background, “The Musical Quarterly” LVII, 1971.