Bach, Johann Sebastian (EN)

Bach Johann Sebastian, *21 March 1685 Eisenach, †28 July 1750 Leipzig, German composer and organist. He came from a family with a long musical tradition; he was the youngest of six sons of Johann Ambrosius, a municipal musician in Eisenach. He himself had a large family: he had seven children with his first wife, Maria Barbara, and thirteen with his second, Anna Magdalena. The baptisms and funerals of his children, ten of whom died in infancy or at the age of only a few years, feature frequently in the composer’s biography. In search of better living conditions, Bach moved from city to city, which marked the individual stages of his musical journey. For example, M. Bukofzer (Music in the Baroque Era) distinguishes five periods in Bach’s work, including three main ones: Weimar — organist, Köthen — teacher, Leipzig — cantor; other researchers take a similar approach. Bach played the organ throughout his life, taught a school choir in Arnstadt, and undertook the task of regularly writing cantatas in Weimar, which later — when he became cantor at St Thomas Church [Thomaskirche] in Leipzig — became his main task. These three areas of activity (organist, cantor, teacher) determined the nature of Bach’s work: he composed exclusively music related to a practical function. In the field of music he was essentially self-taught; he learned to play the violin and keyboard instruments at home, and received some instruction from his brother Johann Christoph, the organist at Ohrdruf, but he perfected his organ technique independently by listening to famous organists such as G. Böhm (Lüneburg), A. Reincken (Hamburg), and D. Buxtehude (Lübeck); he learned the art of composition by copying the works of Baroque masters. He was aware of his talent, which led to conflicts with his peers, especially his superiors — including a dispute with the city council in Arnstadt, numerous disagreements with the university, with city and church authorities in Leipzig, and a protracted conflict with Rector J.A. Ernst. To his contemporaries, Bach was merely an organist, a hired cantor, a self-taught composer writing compositions on commission — subsequent generations recognized him as a musical genius. 

Chronicle of life and work

Eisenach — Ohrdruf — Lüneburg

1685

21 March — birth of Johann Sebastian Bach in Eisenach

1693–95

— attendance at the Latin school in Eisenach

1694

3 May — funeral of his mother, Elisabeth Bach, née Lammerhirt

1695

20 February — funeral of his father, Johann Ambrosius Bach

1695–1700

— residence with his eldest brother Johann Christoph in Ohrdruf; secondary education

1700–02

— choristership in the Mettenchor (small vocal ensemble for morning services) at St Michaelis Church [Michaeliskirche], Lüneburg

1702

— application for the position of organist at Church of St James [Jakobikirche] in Sangerhausen

Weimar — Arnstadt — Mühlhausen — Weimar

1703

March—September — service as musician in the chamber orchestra at the court of Wilhelm Ernst, Duke of Saxe-Weimar 

July — organ examination at the Neue Kirche [now Bachkirche] in Arnstadt

August — appointment as organist at the Neue Kirche in Arnstadt

1704

— Capriccio sopra la lontananza del fratello dilettissimo in B-flat major

1705

October — travel to Lübeck; contact with D. Buxtehude

1706

21 February, 11 November — hearings at the Arnstadt consistory concerning the unauthorized extension of his stay in Lübeck and failure to fulfil his duties as choirmaster

1707

15 June — appointment as organist at St Blasius Church in Mühlhausen

October — marriage to Maria Barbara Bach in Dornheim

1708

4 February — performance of the cantata Gott ist mein König, written on the occasion of the election of the city council in Mühlhausen

February — submission of a proposal to the town council of Mühlhausen for the reconstruction of the organ at St Blasius Church [Divi-Blasii-Kirche]

June — submission of a request to the town council of Mühlhausen for dismissal from his position

July — appointment as organist and court musician (Kammermusicus) to the court orchestra of Duke Wilhelm Ernst in Weimar

29 December — baptism of his firstborn daughter Catharina Dorothea

1709

30 October —Bach’s performance of the chorale fantasia Ein feste Burg BWV 720 on the occasion of the consecration of the new organ in Mühlhausen,

1710

22 November — birth of his son Wilhelm Friedemann

1713

14 December — offer for appointment to the position of organist (after F. W. Zachow) at St Mary’s Church [Marienkirche, also called Marktkirche] in Halle

1714

February — refusal of Halle position

2 March — appointment as concertmaster of the Weimar court

8 March — birth of his son Carl Philipp Emanuel

1715

11 May — birth of his son Johann Gottfried Bernhard

1716

23 February — performance of the cantata Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd (known as the Hunting Cantata)

28 April–2 May

— examination of the new organ at St Mary’s Church in Halle

— Passacaglia in C major

31 July — examination of the new organ in Erfurt

Köthen

1717

5 August — appointment as Kapellmeister and director of chamber music at the court of Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Köthen

September — stay in Dresden, organ contest with J.L. Marchand

6 November–2 December — imprisonment by Duke Wilhelm Ernst (retaliation for Bach’s move to Köthen); dismissal from the Weimar ensemble

17 December — report on the organ at St Paul’s Church [Paulinerkirche] in Leipzig

1718 

May–June — stay in Karlovy Vary with Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Köthen

1719

October — unsuccessful attempt to meet Handel in Halle

1720

22 February — commencement of work on the Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann

May–June — stay in Karlovy Vary with Prince Leopold

7 July — funeral of his wife Maria Barbara

November — stay in Hamburg; performance on the organs of St Catherine’s Church, earning the recognition of the elderly J. A. Reinken

1721

24 March— dedication of Six concerts avec plusieurs instruments to Margrave Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg

3 December — marriage to Anna Magdalena Wilcken

1722 — Klavierbüchlein für Anna Magdalena Bach, issue 1

— Das wohltemperierte Klavier [Well-Tempered Clavier or WTC], part 1

Leipzig

1723

7 February — Bach’s performance of the cantata Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe as an examination of his compositional skills, in connection with his candidacy for the position of cantor at St Thomas Church in Leipzig (following the death of J. Kuhnau) 

13 April — dismissal from service at the princely court in Köthen

22 April — election of Bach as cantor at St Thomas Church

5 May — signing of the agreement specifying the duties of the cantor

13 May — signing of the so-called Formula of Concord (Konkordienformel)

22 May — settling in Leipzig

30 May — Bach’s first performance as cantor in Leipzig with the cantata Die Elenden sollen essen

June — formal introduction of Bach to the St Thomas School [Thomasschule]

November — examination and consecration of the organ in Störmthal; performance of the cantata Höchsterwünschtes Freudenfest

1724

25 June — examination and consecration of the organ in Gera

June — birth of son Gottfried Heinrich

— St John Passion, numerous church cantatas

1725

23 February — performance of the cantata Entfliehet, verschwindet, entweichet, ihr Sorgen (the so-called Shepherd Cantata), composed for the birthday of Christian, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels

3 August — performance of the cantata Zerreisset, zersprenget, zertrümmert die Gruft (Der zufriedengestellte Äolus), composed for the name day of Leipzig University professor F. A. Müller

19–21 September — stay in Dresden, Bach organ concert at St Sophia’s Church [Sophienkirche]

— commencement of work on the second volume of the Klavierbüchlein für Anna Magdalena Bach

1726 

5 April — baptism of his daughter Elisabeth Juliana Friederica

November — publication of first printed compositions (partitas published individually)

1727

17 October —performance of the cantata Lass, Fürstin, lass noch einen Strahl (Trauerode) at St Paul’s Church in Leipzig, composed for the funeral ceremony following the death of Christina Eberhardina, wife of Augustus II the Strong

1728

5 February — performance of the cantata Vergnügte Pleissenstadt (Contented Pleisse-town)

10 October — baptism of his daughter Regina Johanna

1729

February — stay at the ducal court in Weissenfels

23–24 March — funeral ceremonies for Prince Leopold in Köthen, performance of the cantata Klagt, Kinder, klagt es aller Welt

15 April — performance of St Matthew Passion at St Thomas Church in Leipzig

June — second unsuccessful attempt to meet Handel in Halle

24 October —motet Der Geist hilft unser Schwachheit auf, written on the occasion of the death of J. H. Ernesti, rector of St Thomas School

— assumption of the directorship of the Collegium Musicum, founded by G. Ph. Telemann

1730

23 August — Bach’s thanksgiving letter to the Leipzig city council, including a description of the current musical situation and a project for the reform of church music

28 October — letter (with autobiographical elements) to friend from his youth, G. Erdmann, residing in Gdańsk

1731

14 September — organ concert at St Sophia’s Church, Dresden

— publication (by the author) of the Klavierübung I [also Clavier-Übung or Clavierübung] Op.1 

1732

21 June — birth of his son Johann Christoph Friedrich

21 September — journey to Kassel to examine the organs

1733 

25 April — death of his daughter Regina Johanna

27 July — presentation of the Kyrie and Gloria (subsequent sections of the Mass in B minor) to Augustus III of Poland in Dresden

5 September — performance of the cantata Lasst uns sorgen, lasst uns wachen, composed for the birthday of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony

8 December — performance of the cantata Tönet, ihr Pauken, composed for the birthday of Maria Josepha, wife of Augustus III

1734

5 October — performance of the cantata Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen on the anniversary of the coronation of Augustus III

25 December–6 January — performance of subsequent parts of the Weihnachtsoratorium

1735

beginning of the year — publication of the Klavierübung II

June — stay in Mühlhausen with his son Johann Gottfried Bernhard

5 September — birth of his son Johann Christian

1736

August — beginning of a dispute with the rector of St Thomas School, J.A. Ernst

19 October — appointment as court composer to the Saxon Court

1 December

— concert on the Silbermann organ at St Mary’s Church in Dresden

— publication of Musikalisches Gesangbuch [known also as Schemellis Gesangbuch or Schemellis hymnal] by G. Ch. Schemelli, containing chorales arranged by Bach

1737

18 October

— letter to Augustus III seeking assistance in the dispute with rector Ernest

— interruption of work at the Collegium musicum

1738

24 May — letter to J.F. Klemm regarding Johann Gottfried Bernhard’s debts

1739

27 May — death of Johann Gottfried Bernhard

September — organ examination in Altenburg

publication of the Klavierübung III

resumption of directorship of the Collegium musicum

1741 August — journey to Berlin to visit Carl Philipp Emanuel, court harpsichordist to Frederick II

1742

22 February — baptism of his daughter Regina Susanna

30 August — performance of the cantata Mer hahn en neue Oberkeet (known as the Peasant Cantata)

1743

December — examination of the organ in Saint John’s Church [Johanniskirche] in Leipzig

1744

— Das wohltemperierte Klavier, part 2

1746

24–28 September — examination of the organ with G. Silbermann at the St Wenceslaus Church [Wenzelkirche] in Naumburg

1747

7 May — arrival in Potsdam at the invitation of Frederick II

8 May — organ concert in the Garrison Church in Potsdam

June — admission as a member of the Societät der musicalischen Wissenschaften, founded in Leipzig by L.Ch. Mizler

September — publication of Musikalisches Opfer [The Musical Offering]

1748

24 July — recommendation of his pupil J. Ch. Altnikol for the position of organist at St Wenceslaus Church in Naumburg

1749

January — marriage of his daughter Elisabeth Juliana Friederica to J. Ch. Altnikol

— Kunst der Fuge [Art of Fugue]

1750

March—April— two eye operations

28 July — death of Johann Sebastian Bach.

Bach remained faithful to the traditions of Baroque polyphonic music in his work, which was supplanted in the 18th century by the homophony typical of the Classical period and the galant style, characterized by cantabile, graceful, and richly ornamented melodics. This explains why he was less well known in the 18th century than his sons, Carl Philipp Emanuel and Johann Christian, who worked at the great royal courts (Berlin, London). The Cantor of Leipzig [Thomaskantor] composed at a time when the work of French harpsichordists was flourishing (1730 — Quatrième livre de clavecin by Couperin, 1731 — Pièces de clavecin by Rameau) as well as the fame of D. Scarlatti (1739 — Essercizi), when J.V.A. Stamic (d. 1757) was shaping the architectural and instrumental model of the classical symphony in Mannheim, shortly before Haydn’s first symphonies (1761), throughout the time of intensive development of Neapolitan opera (1751 — Iphigenia in Aulis by Jommelli and Farnace by Traetta), and shortly before Gluck’s opera reform (1762 — Orpheus and Eurydice). Johann Sebastian Bach did not write any operas, nor did he concern himself with new type of sonata form. Immersed in earlier musical traditions, he reached the pinnacle of Baroque compositional style. His compositional technique is based on his masterful use of chorale, concertante and variation techniques, incorporated into a polyphonic structure. The synthesis of these techniques, the richness of melodic invention, the versatile use of major-minor tonality, and the diversity of sound all contributed to the composer’s individual style.

Bach’s creative work is rooted in the most enduring traditions of German music, notably the Protestant chorale, central to his daily work as an organist and cantor. Sacred compositions dominate Bach’s artistic legacy, and chorales form the basis of most of his organ works, cantatas and other vocal-instrumental works. By subjecting the chorale to variations, Bach continued the line of development of organ music from Sweelinck, Frescobaldi and Scheidt to Pachelbel and Buxtehude; by combining the chorale with concertante technique, he drew on the achievements of Schütz, Böhm and Italian composers.

Organ arrangements of chorales were particularly typical of German music. Due to his position as organist, Bach composed works of this kind throughout his life, and they are therefore very diverse. Considering the dependence of musical structure on text, technical means and the size of the pieces, the following types of organ chorale arrangements can be distinguished in Bach’s work: 1. simple chorale harmonization — this type of arrangement presents several chorales composed in Arnstadt (e.g. Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr BWV 715); the organ supports the congregational singing; 2. fughetta, also known a small fugue (Vorspielfughette), usually based on the first verse of the chorale melody, played as an instrumental introduction before the collective singing of the chorale; Bach composed them mainly in Arnstadt and Weimar (e.g. Nun ruhen alle Wälder BWV 756); 3. chorale prelude (Vorspielchoral), in which the entire chorale melody is played once using various technical means; this type dominates Bach’s work and is usually denoted by the rather imprecise general term: organ chorale (Orgelchoral); depending on the size of the piece, a distinction is made between small and large chorale preludes; in a short prelude, the individual verses follow each other directly (e.g. chorales from the Orgelbüchlein), while in a large prelude they are interrupted by bridge-passages; 4. chorale fantasia — structurally similar to a prelude but more developed in terms of virtuosity, with rich figuration (e.g. Christ lag in Todesbanden BWV 718 or fantasias from third part of Klavierübung); Bach himself used the term fantasia to describe large chorale preludes in which the cantus firmus was placed in the bass; 5. chorale partita — a form consisting of a series of variations; 6. choral fugue — a free, somewhat improvisational form on a theme taken from a chorale (e.g. Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr BWV 716 or from Klavierübung III with theme from Jesus Christus unser Heiland BWV 689).

It is relatively rare to find Bach’s organ arrangements of chorales strictly modelled on the vocal texture, i.e., four-voice nota contra notam. The cantus firmus itself, however, usually retains its vocal character, thanks to long rhythmic values, clearly breaking through the sound texture. Most often it appears unchanged, although it may be ornamented or coloured. The composer most often introduces the cantus firmus in the soprano, but also entrusts it to the bass or middle parts, and sometimes transfers it from one vocal part to another. The contrapuntal voices are drawn either from the melodic material of the chorale or created independently by the composer.

Reconstructing the complete picture of Bach’s legacy in the field of organ chorale arrangements poses considerable difficulties. This is particularly evident in the case of individual chorales scattered across various manuscripts and old prints, where Bach’s authorship is disputed or even erroneously attributed to him. For example, of the 26 chorales (BWV 741–765), 21 are works by other composers or of dubious authenticity. However, of the approximately 150 organ arrangements of chorales, more than 90 are beyond doubt, as they are included in the five collections left by Bach himself, such as: Orgelbüchlein, the so-called “Schübler Chorales,” Klavierübung III, the Canonic Variations on “Vom Himmel hoch da komm’ ich her,” and a Leipzig manuscript. Only the Orgelbüchlein dates from Bach’s Weimar years; the other collections were compiled by Bach in the last period of his career with a view to publication; three of them were printed (see Editions and literature). The composer sometimes included earlier works in these collections; thus, the collection of six chorales published by G. Schübler contains the chorales on movements from cantatas, while the Leipzig manuscript, written shortly before Bach’s death, contains several chorales dating from his time in Weimar, and an unfinished work with a text of symbolic significance, Vor Deinen Thron tret ich (Before your throne I now appear), regarded as Bach’s last composition. 

The layout of individual collections varies, and moreover, in those created later, an increasingly sophisticated use of polyphonic technique can be observed. It is clear that the composer had a didactic goal in mind when creating them, namely to pass on the skills he had mastered in both organ playing technique and organ composition; this is particularly evident in the Orgelbüchlein and Klavierübung.

The Orgelbüchlein contains short chorale preludes arranged according to the Sundays and feast days of the church calendar, through which Bach intended to cover the entire Church year; however, of the planned 164 chorales, he composed only 45. Almost all of these are four-part pieces, with the chorale melody generally appearing in the highest voice, usually in its original form or with ornamentation, sometimes with coloration; the bass part is carried slowly, often based on an ostinato formula. The moving middle voices, which counterpoint the cantus firmus, are based on a single melodic-rhythmic figure in a given composition. These expressive contrapuntal figures determine the diverse character of the individual preludes; they are linked to the text of a given chorale, providing a kind of musical illustration of the words or reflecting their emotional expression. 

Klavierübung comprises 21 chorales arranged according to a carefully thought-out concept — “in no other organ work did Bach manifest himself so clearly as the musical preacher and deep interpreter of the fundamental doctrines of Lutheranism as he did here” (H. Keller, Die Orgelwerke Bachs). The core of the cycle consists of six chorales concerning the principles of faith, taken from Luther’s catechism; each of them — analogous to Luther’s large and small catechisms — are two settings: the so-called large and small arrangements (fughettas). Luther’s chorales are preceded by the apotheosis of the Holy Trinity in the form of Kyrie, which consists of three hymns (also in large and small arrangements), and Gloria — a chorale about the Holy Trinity Allein Gott (large arrangement in three versions). This predilection for triple arrangements is attributed to symbolic meaning. The Mass cycle begins with the Prelude in E flat major and ends with the Fugue in E flat major BWV 552 (the so-called Trinitäts-Fuge) — these pieces are not thematically related to the chorale. In the chorale arrangements from Klavierübung III, the composer used anticipation of the cantus firmus by imitatively introducing the chorale melody in the counterpointing voices (Kyrie), imitations in contrary motion, and fugal and canonic techniques.

The structure of Canonic Variations (5 variations) consists of a gradation of technical means in individual movements of the composition. In subsequent variations, the canon appears in the contrapuntal voices, and only Variation V feature the canonic treatment of the cantus firmus; Variations I and II are two-voice canons, Variations III and IV are four-voice canons. Variation V is the climax of the cycle; it features three- and four-voice canons in various intervals (up to the ninth), with inverted forms; in the finale, the composer used diminution and stretto, introducing all four lines of the chorale at the same time. Bach wrote the Canonic Variations for the Societät der musicalischen Wissenschaften when applying for membership in 1747; perhaps for this reason, he presented complex technical means as proof of his compositional proficiency, or even his “erudition.” On the other hand, however, it must be taken into account that the Canonic Variations, together with Kunst der Fuge and Musikalisches Opfer, are among Bach’s last works, in which he reached the peaks of abstract use of canonic technique, demonstrating almost mathematical combinations of contrapuntal rules, not fully comprehensible tonally to the unprepared listener.

In the “Schübler Chorales” and the Leipzig manuscript no signs of a cyclic structure are apparent. In the Leipzig manuscript, Bach often presents the same chorale with variations. These works are stylistically diverse; alongside preludes with coloured cantus firmus in the soprano or tenor, there are two fantasias with a chorale melody in the bass and virtuoso trios.

The combination of variation and chorale techniques is presented in four organ partitas: Christ, der du bist der helle Tag BWV 766, O Gott, du frommer Gott BWV 767, Sei gegrüsset, Jesu gütig BWV 768 and Ach, was soll ich Sünder machen? BWV 770 (authorhip disputed). Based on their stylistic characteristics, these works are classified as part of Bach’s early (Lüneburg?) compositions, except for the partita Sei gegrüsset, which was probably composed later (Weimar). The partitas form a variation cycle whose successive numbered sections are titled “partita” (the designation “variatio” occurs only in Sei gegrüsset). In adopting this form, Bach drew on two traditions of Baroque music: chorales with variations (Sweelinck, Scheidt, Pachelbel and many others) and variation suites (German composers, French harpsichordists). The individual variations usually correspond to the verses of the song. Variation is achieved through changing treatment of the contrapuntal voices and the cantus firmus itself, which in the first partita appears in its pure form with a simple chordal harmonic accompaniment, while in the following movements it is embellished and coloured or transferred to other voices. The cycle develops through the expansion of successive variations and the intensification of motion. Occasionally, the composer introduces agogic contrasts within the variations (Partitas nos. 9 and 10 from Ach, was soll ich Sünder machen), and the pedal, used only in some variations, influences the sound character of the piece.

Organ arrangements of chorales are characterised by a diversity of sound that suggests sound experimentation, and their rich melodic inventiveness undoubtedly stems from the composer’s improvisational mastery. Bach was renowned among his contemporaries as an outstanding virtuoso and expert on organ construction. He was repeatedly invited to examine new or renovated instruments, as evidenced by preserved documents, his written evaluations after testing organs, and his reconstruction designs. Through this, Bach came into contact with the most outstanding organ builders of the time, including G. Silbermann, with whom he inspected the organ built by Z. Hildebrandt in St Wenceslaus Church in Naumburg. 

In Bach’s vast artistic legacy, his vocal chorale settings are of marginal importance. They are included in the collection Johann Sebastian Bachs vierstimmige Choralgesänge, published posthumously by C.Ph.E. Bach. The second, expanded edition of this collection, prepared by C.Ph.E. Bach and J.Ph. Kirnberger (cf. list of compositions), contains 371 chorales, of which, according to Schmieder (Thematisch-systematisches Verzeichnis…), 162 come from other compositions, mainly cantatas; often the same text is set in different ways, and sometimes the same arrangement is used for different texts, with predominating nota contra notam technique. Bach’s sacred songs, included in G.Ch. Schemelli’s hymnal were his own compositions; as Schweitzer writes, they are “rather sacred arias than chorales.”

The composer employed masterful polyphony in his motets (e.g. the extensive choral fugue in Jesu, meine Freude). Bach’s motets are choral works for four to eight voices, sometimes for two choruses; they have been preserved in manuscripts in a cappella setting, but in one case also with basso continuo, separate from the bass vocal part (Lobet den Herrn), and in another with instruments doubling the vocal parts (Der Geist hilft unser Schwachheit auf). The absence of instrumental parts in the other works can be explained by the widespread practice at the time of introducing doubling instruments, or at least organ accompaniment (cf. Schweitzer Bach). Nowadays, motets are performed in two ways: in a cappella style or with instrumental accompaniment. The motets reveal their relation to the chorale through both the use of texts and in the melodic treatment.

In vocal-instrumental music, Bach’s chorale technique is most fully demonstrated in cantatas, works performed at the central point of the Protestant liturgy: after the reading from the Gospel and the Creed and before Communion, which began the second part of the service. Bach composed cantatas — much like organ music— throughout the entirety of his lif,; four (or six) cantatas date from his time in Mühlhausen (1707–08), around 20 were composed in Weimar (1714–16), but most of his cantata output he wrote during his Leipzig period. Establishing the chronology of the cantatas is very difficult, as only 10% of the autographs are dated. In recent years, the existing chronology of the cantatas, based on a relatively even distribution of this type of work throughout Bach’s entire period in Leipzig, has been called into question. According to research by A. Dürr and G. v. Dadelsen, Bach composed the majority of the cantatas in the first years following his arrival in Leipzig. Upon taking up the position of cantor at St Thomas Church, and faced with the obligation to provide a different cantata for every Sunday and feast, Bach set out to establish a repertory for himself; he wrote several cantata cycles, each comprising about 60 works, intended for the full cycle of the Church year. Dürr therefore distinguishes three cantata cycles: first — created for the Church year 1723–4, second — 1724–5, third — composed in 1725–7, and suggests the existence of two more cycles from 1728–9(?). The new chronology of cantatas, taken into account by W. Neumann (Handbuch der Kantaten), differs significantly from the information provided in Schmieder’s thematic catalogue.

Bach’s sacred cantatas are based on chorale texts and melodies. The texts of his early cantatas are taken almost exclusively from the Bible and chorales; for example, the cantata Christ lag in Todesbanden is based solely on the words of Luther’s Easter hymn, Der Herr denket an uns on passage from Psalm 115, while in Gott ist mein König the composer also used a free poetic adaptation. Poetic texts referring to the words of the Gospel appear on a larger scale only in the cantatas written in Weimar, where Bach met S. Franck, poet of the ducal court and an outstanding creator of cantata poetry. At that time, he also turned to the poetry of E. Neumeister, though the work of the celebrated reformer of the cantata poetry was not especially favored by him. In Leipzig, the composer began an intensive collaboration with Ch.F. Henrici (known under the pseudonym Picander) and additionally set texts by J.Ch. Gottsched, Ch.M.v. Ziegler, and others.

Formally, Bach’s early cantatas represent the German church cantata style prior to Neumeister’s reform, as they do not feature arias or recitatives in the operatic style. These works are dominated by chorale settings for chorus, which also appear as a cantus firmus in duets or solo passages; sporadically introduced arioso or aria sections (which are essentially indistinguishable from arioso) suggest connections with the German chorale continuo. As in the chorale concerto, contrast is achieved through differentiation of the scoring — thus, alongside the introduction of purely instrumental sections (e.g. an opening sinfonia), by arranging the scoring as chorus–duet–solo — and through the opposition of polyphonic and homophonic textures. In the choral parts, Bach uses a fugal technique, the so-called permutation fugues (W. Neumann Johann Sebastian Bachs Chorfuge), e.g. in the cantata Gott ist mein König. A classic example of a reference to tradition is the variation cantata Christ lag in Todesbanden. 

The Weimar and Leipzig cantatas show a fundamental change in formal structure; they reflect the influence of Neumeister’s reform, which introduced arias and recitatives typical of Italian opera into the Protestant cantata. The structural framework of Bach’s multi-movement (5–10 movements) cantatas consists of choral chorale movements framing the entire composition, which consists of arias, recitatives, and duets (also called arias — Herr Jesu Christ, du höchstes Gut). The basis for this structure is the selection of text; texts from the Bible and chorale usually appear at the beginning and always at the end of the work, while the middle movements are based on religious poetry or chorale, as the chorale cantus firmus sometimes also appears in arias (in vocal or instrumental parts). While the chorale in the first movement of the cantata is arranged either freely (cori) or strictly (chorale), the last movement usually features a traditional four-part vocal chorale in the nota contra notam technique. Dürr (Die Kantaten von Johann Sebastian Bach) distinguishes in the first Leipzig cycle a group of cantatas intended for selected feast days, characterised by the following formal pattern: B(ible)-R-A-R-A-Ch(orale), B-R-Ch-A-R-A-Ch, B-A-Ch-R-A-Ch. An important innovation is the introduction of arias and secco recitative, i.e., accompanied only by basso continuo, or with “instrumental secco,” i.e. with simple chordal accompaniment by string or wind instruments. The instrumental parts in the arias, maintained in the style of Neapolitan opera, are of great importance; usually the arias have a ternary da capo form, sometimes a two- or four-part structure, sometimes similar to a rondo; often they are arias with concertante instruments.

The number of musicians performing his cantatas was small. During the years when Bach directed the choir of St Thomas School, it consisted of only one group from the entire choir, i.e., about 12 singers (a four-part vocal ensemble, three people for each vocal register) — with one singer, the concertist, performing the solo parts, and the other two, the ripienists, joining in the choral parts — and about 18 instrumentalists; in addition to the organ, the continuo ensemble included a violone, two cellos, and one or two bassoons.

Bach’s cantata compositions are strongly associated with the parody technique; the composer often transferred movements — literally or with minor changes — from one cantata to another, or set different text to the same music. This practice of borrowing, both from his own works and those of other composers, was common at the time, and Bach also used it extensively. Parodic connections occur both between cantatas and other vocal-instrumental works (masses, magnificat, passions) and instrumental works (“Schübler Chorales,” harpsichord concertos), with the relationships varying: the cantata was not always the prototype, e.g. in the cantata Falsche Welt, dir trau ich nicht, Bach used the first movement of Brandenburg Concerto No. 1 as the introductory symphony.

Many secular cantatas, including Vergnügte Pleissenstadt (a wedding cantata), have survived only in text form, but the extensive use of parody techniques in these works allows for their complete or partial musical reconstruction. In similar situations, Bach drew on previously composed works; for example, Was mir behagt BWV 208 (the so-called Hunting Cantata), composed for the birthday of Duke Christian von of Saxe-Weissenfels, served as material for the composer to present an almost identical work (Was mir behagt BWV 208a) on the name day of Augustus III of Poland. The secular cantatas, composed for specific occasions, mainly date from Bach’s Leipzig period, where they were performed by students of the Collegium musicum. Bach wrote about 10 secular cantatas for court celebrations in Weimar and Köthen, and in Leipzig he wrote three cantatas for city or university celebrations, four wedding cantatas, five dedicated to various members of the bourgeoisie and nobility (including Mer hahn en neue Oberkeet, commonly and incorrectly referred to as the Peasant Cantata), and 12 or 13 for various events at the Saxon court in Dresden. Secular cantatas obviously do not feature chorales; they almost always end with a choral movement, while beginning with a choral passage or instrumental sinfonia, often a recitative. The work is dominated by typically operatic arias and recitatives. This emphasis on solo parts and the expansion of the entire composition is linked to the desire to maintain the dramatic continuity of the text. Secular cantatas can be considered little musical dramas, as they often have the subtitle “dramma in musica,” e.g. the cantata Lasst uns sorgen, based on Picander’s text published under the title Hercules auf dem Scheidewege, containing an allegorical metaphor addressed to the grandson of Augustus II the Strong. Mythological inspirations are also evident in other works, such as Tönet, ihr Pauken! (soprano — Bellona, alto — Pallas, tenor — Irene, bass — Fama) and Zerreisset, zersprenget, zertrümmert die Gruft (known as Der zufriedengestellte Äolus). The cantata Preise dein Glücke contains allusions to the current political situation (the victory of Augustus III over Stanisław Leszczyński in the struggle for the Polish throne), while the homage cantata Schleicht, spielende Wellen features, among others, the Vistula part, personifying the Polish nation. A unique example in Bach’s dramatic works is the comic cantata Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht (also known as Coffee Cantata) to a text by Picander.

Parodic connections with cantatas are particularly strong in all three of Bach’s oratorios. The Christmas Oratorio (Weihnachtsoratorium) comprises six works with multiple movements, corresponding in structure to the form of a cantata, performed separately according to their purpose (on the three days of Christmas, New Year’s Day, the Sunday after New Year’s Day, and Epiphany); in each piece — except for Cantata VI, Herr, wenn die stolzen Feinde schnauben — two or three movements (recitative, aria) are taken from the secular cantatas Lasst uns sorgen and Tonet, ihr Pauken. The Easter Oratorio (Osteroratorium) is a parody of Entfliehet, verschwindet, entweichet, ihr Sorgen (the so-called Shepherd’s Cantata). Both works were composed in 1725: the Shepherd’s Cantata was performed on February 25 on the birthday of Duke Christian of Sachsen-Weissenfels, while Kommt, eilet und laufet was performed as an Easter cantata on April 1. The term Osteroratorium did not appear until the new version of the work was performed around 1735; Bach made minor changes to the composition at a third performance in the 1740s. Three versions of the oratorio have survived, while the music for the Shepherd’s Cantata has been lost; of the 10 parts of the oratorio, only 4 do not correspond to the prototype, so on this basis F. Smend published a reconstructed Shepherd’s Cantata in the NBA [Johann Sebastian Bach. Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke], with additional recitatives by H. Keller. The Ascension Oratorio (Himmelfahrtsoratorium) also draws on fragments from secular cantatas; the opening choral part comes from the cantata Froher Tag, verlangte Stunden, written for the consecration of St Thomas School, and two arias come from the wedding cantata Auf, süss entzückende Gewalt (the musical parody Agnus Dei from the Mass in B minor is based on one of these arias). Owing to parodic connections and formal analogies, the oratorios were included within Bach’s cantata works. Traces of the traditional oratorio form are reflected in the entrusting of the Evangelist’s role (secco recitative) to the tenor — in the Christmas Oratorio and the Ascension Oratorio — as well as in the effort to preserve elements of dramatic action. The Christmas Oratorio encompasses the Gospel story from the birth of Jesus to the arrival of the three wise men from the East, while the Easter Oratorio depicts the scene at Jesus’ empty tomb, with the parts of the individual characters assigned to the appropriate vocal registers: soprano — Mary Jacobe, alto — Mary Magdalene, tenor — Simon Peter, bass — John the Apostle.

The dramatic element is much more pronounced in both of Bach’s Passions, in which the musical structure is based on the course of the action. Although both works address the same subject and follow the basic architectural principles, (e.g. the secco recitative of the narrator as the Evangelist, the division of the composition into two parts), they differ significantly. In the St John Passion, the action begins with Jesus’ arrest in the Garden of Gethsemane, while in the St Matthew Passion, it begins with the words of Jesus, who announces his crucifixion two days before his death. The action is driven by the recitative parts of the Evangelist, in which Jesus and other characters engage in dialogue. The St John Passion relies exclusively on secco recitative, whereas in the St Matthew Passion, the words of Jesus are accompanied by the string ensemble, and there is also a richer accompagnato recitative with reflective content. Contemplative arias express the feelings of the faithful or convey the meditations of individual characters of the drama; these are virtuoso arias (usually in A–B–A form) with concertante instruments which, through polyphonic treatment of melodic material shared with the vocal part, participate in shaping the dramatic expression; usually two instruments accompany the vocal part, sometimes one (e.g. viola da gamba in the alto aria Est ist vollbracht from the St John Passion) or an ensemble (e.g. string instruments in the alto aria Erbarme dich from the St Matthew Passion). Numerous prayer chorales, like arias, suspend the action; in both these works, Bach sometimes uses the same melodies, but with different text and harmonic arrangements; the individual vocal parts set in the nota contra notam technique are usually doubled by instruments, but in the St Matthew Passion, the composer breaks with this convention by introducing a coloured chorale (chorus) at the end of Part I, embellished with rich figuration (orchestra). Extensive choral parts comment on the situation or participate in the action as so-called “turbae” (crowds).

The structure of both compositions indicates connections with Neapolitan opera, especially with the reform of the libretto that took place there. Individual numbered movements (recitative, aria, chorale, etc.) create great dramatic scenes, such as Peter’s denial in St John Passion — from the chorus (No. 3 according to Peters Edition of the score) to the chorale (No. 20) ending Part I — or the scene of Jesus’ death (Nos. 57–63), in which, in addition to the R-A-R structure, the composer uses a direct transition from recitative to arioso and then to aria. The integration of recitatives with arias and choruses by means of shared melodic material contributes to the dramatic unity of the scene, while the introduction of strong tonal contrasts — e.g. bichoral part–secco recitative–choral-orchestral part (the ending of Part I in the St Matthew Passion) —intensifies dramatic tension. The use of illustrative elements in the instrumental parts (e.g. the rending of the veil — St John Passion Nos. 21 and 22) and choral parts (lightning, thunder — St Matthew Passion No. 34), together with the careful realization of the verbal text in recitatives and arias, serves expressive purposes. In addition to the Gospel, the textual basis for the St John Passion consists of modified fragments of Passion by H. Brockes and poems by an unknown author; for the St Matthew Passion, Bach probably collaborated with Picander, the author of arias texts. Both works have been the subject of debate among music historians. In the case of the St John Passion, discussion concerns the date of its first performance (26 March 1723 or 7 April 1724), while for the St Matthew Passion, it concerns the parody connection that occurs between the arias from this work and the Funeral Music (Trauermusik BWV 244a) composed at the same time (1728) on the death of Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Köthen, of which only the text has survived; some scholars (including F. Smend) believe that the Funeral Music constituted the original version subsequently adapted for the Passion, while others (including A. Dürr) maintain the opposite view. It is generally assumed that Bach wrote four Passions, though only the texts of the St Mark Passion and the St Luke Passion have survived; the authorship of the latter remains doubtful. 

The synthesis of concertante and polyphonic techniques is also fully evident in the Magnificat and Mass in B minor, not only in the arias, but also in the choral movements, where only occasionally — in fragments of chordal tutti — does the composer use instrumental doubling of the vocal parts to enhance the dynamic effect. The original version of the Magnificat in E flat major (1723), published in 1811 by Simrock, contains an addition of four interpolations (the chorale Vom Himmel hoch, the chorus Freut euch, Gloria, the duet Virga Jesse floruit); around 1730, Bach transposed the work to D major, made some alterations and omitted the interpolations; this is the form in which the Magnificat is currently performed. 

The Mass in B minor is the only “missa tota et concertata” in Bach’s oeuvre (W. Blankenburg Einführung in Bachs h-moll Messe); the other masses represent the genre of the “missa brevis,” consisting of only two parts: Kyrie and Gloria. The commonly known five-part structure of the Mass in B minor (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei) is not reflected in the composer’s manuscript, which, under the general title Missa (the term hohe Messe h-moll used by 19th-century publishers), divides the work into the following parts: 1. Kyrie — Gloria, 2. Symbolum Nicenum (Credo), 3. Sanctus, 4. Osanna, Benedictus, Agnus Dei et Dona nobis pacem. This became the basis for a discussion among musicologists as to whether Bach’s work should be classified as Protestant (F. Smend) or Catholic music (the discussion is reported in detail by E. Zavarský Johann Sebastian Bach), and influenced the form of the source edition in the NBA. In 1733, Bach, when applying for the post of court composer, sent the Kyrie and Gloria to Augustus III, who was promoting Catholicism within his circle (A. Schering raised the hypothesis that the creation of the Mass in B minor was connected with the coronation of Augustus, Elector of Saxony as King of Poland in Krakow in 1733), but on the other hand, it is precisely the Kyrie and Gloria that form the basis of the Protestant mass. The latest source research (Dürr, Dadelsen) has also influenced the chronology of the remaining parts of the work; until now, it was believed that the Credo was composed in 1732 and the remaining parts in 1738–39; it is now known that the Sanctus already existed in 1724, while the other parts (including the Credo) were written in the last years of Bach’s life, probably around 1748, in connection with the idea of creating a complete, grand vocal-instrumental concertante work. It seems that by introducing the Symbolum Nicenum, the composer wanted to emphasise the universal quality of the Christian faith (credo in unum Deum), the unity sought by Emperor Constantine the Great at the Council of Nicaea; the layout of the manuscript and the chronology confirm the connection between Bach’s creative process and the Protestant liturgy. The four-part structure of the Mass in B minor speaks for the uniformity of the work in its final form, as in this version all four parts begin and end with elaborate choruses; the disproportion caused by the relatively short Agnus Dei, separated as the last part comprising only an aria and a choral part, has disappeared. The rich use of concertante technique, the important role of the instrumental parts in the realisation of the verbal content, and the treatment of the vocal sound in the manner of instruments support Blankenburg’s thesis that in the Mass in B minor, Bach used the form of a concerto grosso for vocal-instrumental choirs.

In the Brandenburg Concertos — composed in Köthen — Bach presented various types of concerto grosso; Köthen was also the place in which Bach wrote the greater part of his chamber compositions. The balance between the concertino and concerto ensembles, typical of the concerto grosso form, has been preserved only in Concertos Nos. 1 and 2. The virtuoso violin cadenzas in the Concerto No. 4 and the harpsichord cadenzas in the No. 5 indicate connections with the solo concerto; entrusting the harpsichord with the concertante parts, freeing it from its function as an instrument performing only basso continuo, allows the Brandenburg Concerto No. 5 to be considered the prototype of the solo harpsichord concerto. In the Concerto No. 3, Bach, using only three-part ensembles of three string instruments, refers to the polychoral concertante technique (there is no concertino in this work); in the Concerto No. 6, the composer also uses only string instruments (two violins, two violas da gamba, cello, double bass), but the two two-part ensembles are not treated equally, as the violas are accompanied by the cello, while violas da gamba often support the continuo part; at the same time, there are passages in this concerto without continuo part.

Breaking with the standard concerto and concertino format in the Brandenburg Concertos, Bach introduces a different concertante ensemble in each piece; this results in a diversity of sound, which is further enhanced by the emphasis on a different concertante instrument in each part of the composition. In addition to the predominant three-movement fast-slow-fast structure of the Brandenburg Concertos, Bach uses a two-movement structure in Concerto No. 3, with a one bar Adagio separating the two movements; a four-movement structure in Concerto No. 1, in which the fourth part shows reminiscences of a suite (Menuetto–Polacca–Menuetto); the Concerto No. 2 contains a two-bar Adagio separating the second phase of the work. The integration of the form is achieved through the recurring theme performed tutti (the so-called “ritornello-tutti”), motivic correspondences, imitation technique (the second and third movement of Concertos Nos. 2 and 5) and fugal technique (the third movement of the Concerto No. 4). While the Brandenburg Concertos synthesise polyphonic and concertante techniques and show the influence of Vivaldi and other Italian composers, the orchestral Ouvertures — owing to the unison doublings — there is a stronger emphasis on homophonic texture, with the concertante element being less noticeable (solo fragments, contrasting instrumental groups), and the suite-like structure of the form (a series of dances) shows references to the experiences of French composers.

The traditional three-part cycle dominates Bach’s solo concertos, but these are often non-original works, and Bach’s authorship is in many cases questioned. Based on Wilhelm Friedemann’s annotations, six organ concertos are attributed to Bach, which are transcriptions of violin concertos by Vivaldi and Prince Johann Ernst of Saxe-Weimar. Similarly, 17 concertos for solo harpsichord (without orchestral accompaniment) have their origins in the works of other composers (see list of compositions, not all prototypes identified). Of the seven harpsichord concertos (BWV 1052–58), only the Concerto in A major is, according to Keller (Die Klavierwerke Bachs), an original composition, while the other works are adaptations of violin concertos in A minor and E major, the Brandenburg Concerto No. 4 or lost violin concertos. In only one case did keyboard works become the prototype for a concerto composition: in the Concerto for flute, violin and harpsichord, BWV 1044, parts 1 and 3 are arrangements of the Prelude and fugue in A minor for harpsichord, BWV 894, and part 2 is an arrangement of the second movement of the Organ Sonata in D minor, BWV 527; this work, commonly referred to as the Triple Concerto (Tripelkonzert), is actually a concerto for harpsichord, as the other two solo instruments play an accompanying role, with the harpsichord — as in the Brandenburg Concerto No. 5 — performing a dual function: that of a concertato instrument and that of a basso continuo. In addition to concertos for a single solo instrument, Bach wrote a Concerto in D minor for two violins (the prototype of the Concerto in C minor for two harpsichords, BWV 1062), as well as two concertos for two harpsichords (in C minor BWV 1060 and C major BWV 1061), two concertos for three harpsichords (in D minor BWV 1063 and C major BWV 1064) and a Concerto in A minor for four harpsichords (after Vivaldi), in which traces of violin texture are particularly evident. These are usually concertos accompanied by string instruments. Only the Italian Concerto, published together with the French Overture in Klavierübung II, is intended for harpsichord without orchestral accompaniment.

His fascination with Italian music is most evident in his concertos and chamber music. “Bach was the first and only composer to use the Italian trio sonata style in sonatas for a melodic instrument and obbligato harpsichord” (H. Keller, Die Orgelwerke Bachs). In the six sonatas for violin, three for flute and three for viola da gamba, the three-part style is achieved through the melodic treatment of the harpsichord part in the right hand, while in the six organ sonatas, the use of three-manual points to analogies with the trio sonata. Bach used the actual trio instrumentation only in the Trio in D minor and three sonatas (BWV 1036–39). In these works, he used the form of sonata da chiesa (Corelli), with only the organ sonatas being presented in a three-part cycle structure.

Variation technique, which since the beginning of instrumental music has been associated with its development, stems mainly from two sources in Bach’s compositions: variation arrangements of chorales and harpsichord suites. The following types of this technique can be distinguished in his work: 1. organ chorale variations (chorale partitas, Canonic Variations), which also influenced vocal music; thus, for example, in the cantata Christ lag in Todesbanden, based on the chorale variation “per omnes versus” technique, individual movements contain successive chorale verses, with the chorale melody treated differently each time; 2. ostinato variations — e.g. Passacaglia in C minor for organ, a work of exceptional artistic significance compared to other ostinato compositions of the time, in which a fixed eight-bar theme presented in the bass is subjected to 20 variations; however, it is also repeated in the higher voices and undergoes harmonic figuration (Variation 26); the intensification of movement and sound values takes place in three developmental phases, culminating in a fugue with two constant counterpoints; 3. ornamental variations — similar to those of French harpsichordists — with doubles appear in three partitas for solo violin, in the suites Nos. 1 and 6 from the English Suites; 4. so-called characteristic variations — Aria mit verschiedenen Veränderungen, known also as Goldberg Variations (Goldberg-Variationen), consisting of a theme of a large-scale aria with a rich, ornamental melody, and a set of 30 numbered variations; not only the melody of the theme undergoes changes, but also the bass part, although the same harmonic pattern is retained throughout the composition; the structure of the cycle is based on a gradation of technical means, which goes hand in hand with an intensification of the virtuoso element (figuration, movement of the thirds, double trills, etc.); every third variation is a canon conducted in successive intervals from unison (Variation 3) to ninth (Variation 27), and every third variation also presents a “characteristic” type of piece (Variation 4 — a lively dance, 7 — a siciliana, 10 — a fughetta, 12 — an ornate adagio, etc.); the accumulation of technical problems in no way obscures the richness of expression, which is why music historians regard the Goldberg Variations as the beginning of a line of development in the variation form, leading through the works of Beethoven and Brahms to Reger.

Bach’s polyphony is the quintessence of Baroque music: fugal technique (imitations) permeates the concertato style (arias from cantatas, Mass in B minor, passions, Brandenburg Concertos, solo concertos), polyphonic technique is inextricably linked to variation technique (organ chorale arrangements, chorale partitas, motets, Passacaglia in C minor, Goldberg Variations), and taking a broader view of the variation technique, in its original meaning of “Veränderungen” (changes, transformations), almost all of Bach’s works confirm this inseparability. The intertwining of the principles of functional harmony and counterpoint determined Bach’s special role in the history of music. His music achieved a perfect fusion of horizontal and vertical thinking; drawing on the major-minor system, the composer closely guided polyphonic parts within a single tonal plane, creating new combinations of harmonies. Bach’s entire oeuvre is characterized by his attention to the quality of the sound material, to the good sound of independently moving voices and to changing the timbre in temporal progression. The fugue — this strict, “rationalised” form — found its most outstanding representative in Bach; this is confirmed by his vocal fugues (from cantatas, Mass in B minor), organ and harpsichord fugues, and especially the two volumes of Das wohltemperierte Klavier. The composer excelled at shaping themes, giving them distinctive, characteristic intervallic pattern; with equal inventiveness — while maintaining the fluidity of the melodic line — he created counterpoints, unique models with uniform rhythms; this combination of artistic imagination with strict adherence to the rules of counterpoint is what makes his polyphonic art so unique. In the fugues of Das wohltemperierte Klavier, he demonstrated a full arsenal of polyphonic means: exquisite imitations, canon technique, as well as treatment of the subject by subjecting it to augmentation, diminution, inversion and retrograde; alongside four-part fugues, there are three-part fugues, as well as five-part fugues (C sharp minor, WK I, 4), and alongside single-subject fugues, there are double fugues (G sharp minor, WK II, 18). In the preludes, figurations play a major role, often emphasising harmony; there are also polyphonic preludes (E flat major, WK I, 7). The connection between the preludes and fugues is tonal and often motivic; the essence of their combination, however, is the concept of combining an improvisatory virtuoso form with a disciplined, strict form; toccatas and organ and harpsichord fantasias are combined with fugues on similar principles.

Bach presented particularly complex polyphonic measures in his last two works (Musikalisches Opfer and Kunst der Fuge) related to the so-called royal fugue subject (thema regium) [also known as the “royal theme”], which Frederick II assigned to the composer (during Bach’s stay in Potsdam) for elaboration. Musikalisches Opfer consists of two ricercars (three-part and six-part) with a sophisticated fugal structure, ten canons presenting the “musical charades” fashionable in the 18th century (Schweitzer Bach) and a trio sonata. Kunst der Fuge, with its ambiguous cycle structure, contains 11 fugues, 4 canons, 3 mirror fugues and an unfinished triple fugue (Contrapunctus XIX); in all fugues and canons, Bach accumulates various polyphonic techniques (for a detailed analysis, see E. Zavarský Johann Sebastian Bach). Bach’s last two works do not have a specific instrumentation (only in the sonata from Musikalisches Opfer are the instruments specified), so they are played both on the organ and by chamber ensembles.

The pedagogical aspect of Bach’s activity is evident;  in Arnstadt he conducted a school choir; in Mühlhausen he probably also served as a cantor; in Weimar and Köthen he already had pupils known by name; in Leipzig, as cantor, he taught singing and instrumental music and sought to raise the school’s musical standards (a project to reform church music from 1730); as director of the Collegium musicum, he trained instrumentalists. Bach taught around 80 pupils, including J.N. Gerber, J.Th. Krebs, and his three sons, J. Schneider, J.M. Schubert, and J.G. Vogler. In the history of music, Bach’s name is permanently associated with such students as J.F. Agricola, author of the famous Obituary, J.Ph. Kirnberger, who compiled Bach’s works in the library of Anna Amalia, sister of Frederick the Great, and passed on his compositional guidelines in his treatises, J.Ch. Kittel, who cultivated the traditions of Bach’s organ music in the 19th century, and J.Ch. Altnikol, the blind composer’s right-hand man in the last years of his life. The group of students included relatives from the extensive Bach family, including Johann Elias, Johann Ernst, Johann Bernhardt and Johann Ludwig. Bach’s own family was a constant focus of his teaching activities; his sons Johann Christian and Carl Philipp Emanuel, who later became famous, inherited their father’s practical skills, intellectual discipline and logic of musical composition. Wilhelm Friedemann owed his organ playing skills to his father; Johann Friedrich Christoph, as the youngest, was given special attention. “I can already form a concert, both vocal and instrumental, of my own family, particularly as my present wife [Anna Magdalena] sings a very clear soprano, and my eldest daughter joins in bravely” — Bach’s letter to J. Erdmann (dated 25 October 1730). His domestic music-making and professional duties were directly related to his teaching activities, although his superiors (in Arnstadt and Leipzig) accused him of not performing his duties conscientiously.

The essence of Bach’s pedagogical approach was consciously directed creative activity, stemming from the need to pass on his musical knowledge in both performance technique and the art of composition; this applies especially to his instrumental works. The complete texts of titles such as Orgelbüchlein, Das wohltemperierte Klavier, and 2- and 3-voice inventions, preserved in autographs, confirm the composer’s didactic intentions; in these works, as well as in the harpsichord suites, violin sonatas, and Italian Concerto, an illuminating attention to texture is evident. The organ exercise Pedalexercitium and the collections Notebook for Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedmann Bach) and Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (Klavierbüchlein für Anna Magdalena Bach known also as Notenbüchlein… I) have a clear didactic purpose. The first one contains — apart from explanations of musical symbols and finger exercises — preludes (11 of which later appeared in Das wohltemperierte Klavier I), minuets, the first version of two-part inventions (called preambulum) and three-part inventions (called sinfonie), and two organ chorales, while the second contains five French Suites, a minuet, an air and also two organ pieces. The contents of Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (Klavierbüchlein für Anna Magdalena Bach, also known as Notenbüchlein… II) from 1725 appear to be a random collection, as alongside short, very easy dances (minuets, polonaises, marches) there are two harpsichord partitas, a French Suite and an excerpt from Suite No. 2, i.e. compositions requiring considerable technical proficiency, as well as several songs and vocal arias. Both the Notebook for Wilhelm Friedemann Bach and the Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach contain some pieces by other composers (Stöltzel, Telemann, Böhm, Couperin).

Few of Bach’s works were published during his lifetime: Klavierübung I–IV, “Schübler Chorales,” Musikalisches Opfer, vocal chorales in Schemellis Musikalisches Gesangbuch, and, of his cantatas, only Gott ist mein König; Kunst der Fuge, published posthumously, found purchasers only after many years. After the composer’s death, the manuscripts of his works, divided between Carl Philipp Emanuel and Wilhelm Friedemann, were scattered, although numerous copies have survived. In 1754, L. Mizler’s “Musikalische Bibliothek” published an Obituary written by C.Ph.E. Bach and J. Agricola — it was the first and only such extensive account in the 18th century informing about the work of the great artist whose oeuvre and figure were fading into oblivion. The leading writers of the era, Mattheson and Scheibe, preoccupied with the galant style, depreciated the composer’s achievements; Burney admired the music of Carl Philipp Emanuel, while Hiller — cantor of St Thomas Church in Leipzig from 1786 — praised Handel and Hasse.

It was not until the 19th century that a fundamental shift occurred in the assessment of Johann Sebastian Bach’s artistic legacy. J.N. Forkel’s monograph (1802) and J.F. Rochlitz in the “Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung” (in 1820–40) caused Bach’s music to penetrate the artistic consciousness of his contemporaries; the turning point came with the performance of St Matthew Passion in Berlin in 1829, conducted by F. Mendelssohn; in 1831, the Kyrie and Gloria from the Mass in B minor were performed at the Berliner Philharmonie, cantatas began to return to the repertoire of St Thomas Choir of Leipzig, and organ and harpsichord works appeared in concert programmes. Bach’s works were performed from copies, as only a few cantatas, the Magnificat and the St John Passion were published in the first decades of the 19th century. In 1837, Schumann abandoned the idea of publishing the complete works of Johann Sebastian Bach; this task was only undertaken by the Bach-Gesellschaft, which had been operating since 1850. In the second half of the 19th century, alongside the BGA [Die Gesamtausgabe der Werke Bachs] (see Editions), practical editions of individual works — particularly organ pieces and cantatas — were issued with growing frequency; monographs appeared, among which Philipp Spitta’s extensive work holds a prominent place, remaining even today an irreplaceable historical source.

In the early years of the 20th century, Schweitzer (Bach) still regretted that Bach’s music was not widely enough known; but today it has become an integral part of musical life. Festivals, academic conferences, museums, numerous editions and recordings have contributed to this. The direct credit for the systematic promotion of Bach’s music should be attributed to the Neue Bach-Gesellschaft, founded in 1900, which initiated: 1. the publication of “Veröffentlichungen der Neuen Bach-Gesellschaft” (from 1901), a series containing selected works (songs, arias, cantatas, organ chorales, trio sonatas, etc.), compiled for practical purposes by experts on Bach’s music, as well as book publications, 2. the publication of the “Bach-Jahrbuch” (since 1904), a periodical presenting the results of ongoing research, 3. the organisation of regular Bach festivals (known as Bachfeste, since 1901), 4. the establishment of a museum in Bach’s family home in Eisenach. This revival of musical life is linked to the intensification of scientific research into Bach’s work, which was undertaken primarily by German musicologists: A. Schering, W. Schmieder, F. Blume, W. Blankenburg, W. Neumann, H. Keller, F. Smend, A. Dürr, G.v. Dadelsen and others, who addressed specific topics and undertook documentary and editorial work. The research was concentrated around two centres: the Johann Sebastian Bach Institute in Göttingen and the Bach-Archiv Leipzig, which undertook a monumental edition of all Bach’s works (NBA — see Editions). In England, work on Bach’s oeuvre was led by Ch.S. Terry, while in France, A. Pirro took an interest in his organ works. By the middle of our century, the literature on Bach had grown enormously.

Currently, scientific research focuses on source studies; NBA publications entail changes in the chronology of Bach’s works and help to establish the authenticity of questionable compositions. Scientific discussions focus on these issues as well as on performance issues related to different interpretations of Bach’s music. However, Schweitzer’s monograph (1905) remains the only attempt at a comprehensive, synthetic overview of the composer’s life and work, so Blume’s paper (1962), which proposed a new perspective on Bach, understandably caused a stir and sparked numerous controversies. Bach’s work continues to intrigue contemporary audiences. Bukofzer sees his work as a synthesis of German, Italian and French Baroque music styles, while Blume (already in his article Bach, MGG I) seeks links between Bach and the musical culture of the 18th century, attempts to interpret his art as a link between the music of the past and the music of the future, and questions the romantic image of Bach conveyed by Spitta.

Undoubtedly, compared to his contemporary, Handel, Bach was further ahead of his time. Handel was firmly rooted in the musical trends of his time, writing operas in the Neapolitan style, and in his oratorios — though paying tribute to Baroque traditions — approaching operatic forms; his Fireworks Music and Water Music anticipated the divertimenti and serenades of the Viennese school, bringing him closer to the composers of the Classical period. Bach remained entirely within the sphere of Baroque music, composing fugues, passions, cantatas, organ chorales, trio sonatas and concertos, yet he served as a model for Romantic composers and the next generation. Nineteenth-century composers were undoubtedly fascinated by him as an artistic individual: as a musician who was able to draw inspiration from the simplest manifestations of national music, Protestant chorales, to create works of universal value, and as an artist who transformed himself from a simple craftsman operating with existing musical resources into a poet of sounds (Tondichter), revealing the hitherto unknown richness of organ, choral and orchestral sound. Today, Bach’s works test performers’ musicality, provide a material for studying compositional technique, and serve as a model of intellectual discipline that arises from the perfect fusion of theory and practice, the rational and the emotional, the objective and the subjective. It is intriguing that this music — which is “perfect” in the Aristotelian sense of the word — emerges from everyday life; though originally composed “on commission,” it continues to captivate with the mysterious, Orphic power of the world of sounds. “If, by some perverse miracle, we were deprived of what the creativity of history’s greatest musical genius has built within us, we would not be able to recognise ourselves in this desolation” (W. Lutosławski).